Understanding language teaching from method to postmethod

x CONTENTS 2.3.6. Environmental Factors 42 2.4. Intake Processes 45 2.4.1. Inferencing 45 2.4.2. Structuring 46 2.4.3. Restructuring 47 2.5. Output 48 2.6. An Interactive Framework of Intake Processes 2.7. Conclusion 53 49 3 Teaching: Input and Interaction 55 3. Introduction 55 3.1. Input Modifications 57 3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications 58 3.1.2. Meaning-Based Input Modifications 60 3.1.3. Form- and Meaning-Based Input Modifications 3.2. Interactional Activities 65 3.2.1. Interaction as a Textual Activity 66 3.2.2. Interaction as an Interpersonal Activity 70 3.2.3. Interaction as an Ideational Activity 71 3.3. Content Specifications 75 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristics 75 3.3.2. Syllabus Classifications 79 3.4. Conclusion 80 PART TWO 62 LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS 4 Constituents and Categories of Methods 83 4. Introduction 83 4.1. Constituents of Language Teaching Methods 83 4.1.1. Method and Methodology 83 4.1.2. Approach, Method, and Technique 84 4.1.3. Approach, Design, and Procedure 86 4.1.4. Principles and Procedures 87 4.2. Categories of Language Teaching Methods 90 4.2.1. Language-Centered Methods 90 4.2.2. Learner-Centered Methods 91 4.2.3. Learning-Centered Methods 91 4.3. Designer Nonmethods 92 4.4. A Special Task 94 4.5. Conclusion 96 5 Language-Centered Methods 5. Introduction 97 5.1. Theoretical Principles 99 5.1.1. Theory of Language 97 99 xi CONTENTS 5.1.2. Theory of Language Learning 99 5.1.3. Theory of Language Teaching 101 5.1.4. Content Specifications 102 5.2. Classroom Procedures 103 5.2.1. Input Modifications 103 5.2.2. Interactional Activities 106 5.3. A Critical Assessment 109 5.4. Conclusion 113 6 Learner-Centered Methods 114 6. Introduction 114 6.1. Theoretical Principles 116 6.1.1. Theory of Language 116 6.1.2. Theory of Language Learning 118 6.1.3. Theory of Language Teaching 119 6.1.4. Content Specifications 121 6.2. Classroom Procedures 123 6.2.1. Input Modifications 124 6.2.2. Interactional Activities 125 6.3. A Critical Assessment 129 6.4. Conclusion 132 7 Learning-Centered Methods 134 7. Introduction 134 7.1. Theoretical Principles 136 7.1.1. Theory of Language 136 7.1.2. Theory of Language Learning 136 7.1.3. Theory of Language Teaching 142 7.1.4. Content Specifications 144 7.2. Classroom Procedures 146 7.2.1. Input Modifications 146 7.2.2. Interactional Activities 149 7.3. A Critical Assessment 156 7.4. Conclusion 157 PART THREE POSTMETHOD PERSPECTIVES 8 Postmethod Condition 8. Introduction 161 8.1. The Limits of Method 162 8.1.1. The Meaning of Method 162 8.1.2. The Myth of Method 163 8.1.3. The Death of Method 168 8.2. The Logic of Postmethod 170 8.2.1. Pedagogic Parameters 171 161 xii CONTENTS 8.2.2. Pedagogic Indicators 8.3. Conclusion 183 176 9 Postmethod Pedagogy 185 9. Introduction 185 9.1. The Three-Dimensional Framework 186 9.1.1. The Intralingual–Crosslingual Dimension 187 9.1.2. The Analytic-Experiential Dimension 189 9.1.3. The Explicit–Implicit Dimension 191 9.2. The Exploratory Practice Framework 193 9.2.1. The Principle of Exploratory Practice 195 9.2.2. The Practice of Exploratory Practice 196 9.2.3. The Global and the Local 198 9.3. The Macrostrategic Framework 199 9.3.1. Macrostrategies 201 9.3.2. Microstrategies 208 9.4. Conclusion 213 10 Postmethod Predicament 215 10. Introduction 215 10.1. Challenging Barriers 216 10.1.1. The Pedagogical Barrier 216 10.1.2. The Ideological Barrier 218 10.2. Facilitating Factors 221 10.3. Conclusion 223 Postscript: The Pattern Which Comforts 224 References 227 Author Index 245 Subject Index 251 Preface The Pattern Which Connects “Break the pattern which connects the items of learning,” warned the celebrated anthropologist, Gregory Bateson, “and you necessarily destroy all quality” (1979, p. 8, italics in original). He issued this warning in a letter to his fellow regents of the University of California, complaining about American schools that teach the students “almost nothing of the pattern which connects” (p. 8). Later, he made the phrase—the pattern which connects—the central thesis of his pioneering work, Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, in which he explored “the metapattern” that connects every living thing on this planet, or, as he put it, “What pattern connects the crab to the lobster and the orchid to the primrose and all the four of them to me? And me to you? And all the six of us to the amoeba in one direction and to the backward schizophrenic in another?” (p. 8). The pattern which connects. That’s what this book is all about. Not the so profound pattern that governs the evolution and ecology of all life on earth, but the more mundane pattern that connects the various elements of learning, teaching, and teacher education in the narrow field of teaching English to speakers of other languages. It may appear to be inappropriate or even anticlimactic, to link the concern for an understanding of the ecological macrocosm with the concern for an understanding of the pedagogical microcosm. But the whole point, if we follow the Batesonian argument, is that the elements constituting each are indeed interconnected in ways that may not be readily apparent. As one who has been engaged in English language teaching and teacher education for nearly a quarter century, I have always struggled with the problem of finding the pattern which connects. And, I have seen graduate xiii xiv PREFACE students, practicing teachers, and professional colleagues struggling to recognize the pattern which connects. It is not easy to perceive the barely visible deep structure patterns that connect different elements of a phenomenon unless one makes a long and laborious effort. Let me hasten to add that I am not merely talking about the need to connect the curricular objectives with class activities, teaching strategies with learning styles, evaluation measures with learning outcomes, and so on. Of course, they are all important. But, I am more concerned about the pattern which connects higher order philosophical, pedagogical, and ideological tenets and norms of language teaching that leads us to true understanding, not to false knowledge. It is the task of linking and expressing the pattern which connects the stated and the unstated higher order tenets of language teaching methods that I have set upon myself to do. I thought the task would not be very difficult, given my personal experience of learning and teaching English as a second language, and my professional knowledge of language learning, teaching, and teacher education. I was wrong. It did not take much time for me to realize that I have, after all, rushed in “where angels fear to tread.” One of the major challenges I faced was how to clear the conceptual cobwebs and terminological bedbugs prevalent in the combinations, harmonies, and discords between layers upon layers of theoretical principles, pedagogic practices, and political ideologies one comes across in the long history of English language teaching (ELT). A related challenge was how to separate the trivial from the profound, the fashion from the substance, and the chafe from the grain in order to reach the heart of the matter. At a relatively lower level, I was also faced with the challenge of determining the directions to take with regard to focus as well as audience. I convinced myself that, of all the related aspects of ELT, I know more about methods than about anything else. Besides, the concept of method has been a severely contested frame of reference for thinking and writing about classroom learning and teaching. Understandably, tensions and contradictions have arisen out of efforts aimed at its reconceptualization. Recently, the discourse on the limitations of the concept of method has become so prominent, and the desire to find alternatives to it so pronounced that they have resulted in what has been called the postmethod condition. I thought there is certainly a need to apply current thinking, and take a fresh look at language teaching methods, and therefore, I decided to focus sharply on them. In order to understand language teaching, and its slow transition from method to postmethod, I considered it necessary to take a historical perspective to the development of major language teaching methods. I decided to limit the historical orientation to about 50 years or so of innovations in language teaching, and not venture into earlier times. My rationale is that it is only during the second half of the 20th century, with the advent of audiolingualism, that the language teaching profession entered a decid- PREFACE xv edly systematic and theory-driven phase. In looking back at the past and in looking forward to the future, I have tried to create a historical significance filtered through the prism of my own personal experience and professional understanding. In that sense, this book marks the merging of the personal, the professional, and the historical. One more remark on the focus of this book is in order. In discussing language teaching methods, I do not see much merit in making any distinction between second and foreign languages, or between teaching English as a second/foreign language and teaching other languages such as French or Spanish as a second/foreign language. I have always felt that these distinctions are based more on proprietorial rights than on pedagogical reasoning. In any case, these distinctions do not matter much to an investigation and interpretation of higher order tenets of language pedagogy. For illustrative purposes, however, I will be focusing on English language teaching; although, most of the issues and concerns treated in this book are applicable to language education in general. As for the readership, this book is intended primarily for graduate students, practicing teachers, and teacher educators. Clearly, they all bring varying degrees of prior knowledge and precise motivation to the task of deconstructing this text. It is almost impossible to appeal to all shades of potential readers unless everything is reduced to the lowest common denomination; I have not done that. As a result, each group will find some portions of the text more pertinent than others, and some portions more engaging than others. Teacher educators may find perspectives that are, in certain cases, different from the ones with which they are already familiar. Practicing teachers may find new connections that give them ideas that they may not have thought about before. Beginning level graduate students may find that some sections of the text require a more careful reading than others. Throughout the text, I have tried to explain the concepts and terms in as simple language as possible, without, at the same time, diluting the complexity of the issues, or “dumbing down” the reader. AN OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK As indicated earlier, I attempt to present in this book a personal and professional perspective of English language teaching methods—a perspective that is founded at once on historical action and contemporary thought. Drawing from seminal, foundational texts and from critical commentaries made by various scholars, I narrate the profession’s slow and steady march from method to postmethod, and in the process, elucidate the relationship between theory, research, and practice. I mix materials that are old and new. The book is divided into three parts: (1) Language, Learning, and