English grammar a resource book

x CONTENTS D10.2 The ‘second conditional’  Dave Willis (1994) reprinted from ‘The Lexical Approach’, in M. Bygate, A. Tonkyn and E. Williams, Grammar and the Language Teacher, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International, pp. 59–60. 248 D11 Subject, actor, theme Michael Halliday (2004) reprinted from An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd edition, revised by Christian Matthiessen), Arnold: London, pp. 53–57. 251 D12 Grammar in the construction of online discussion messages Ann Hewings and Caroline Coffin (2004) reprinted from Applying English Grammar, Caroline Coffin, Ann Hewings and Kieran O’Halloran (eds), London: Arnold, pp. 137–143. 256 Sources of texts used 263 References 265 Index of terms and concepts 267 HO W TO USE T HIS B O O K The Routledge English Language Introductions are ‘flexi-texts’ that you can use to suit your own style of study. The books are divided into four sections: A  Introduction – sets out the key concepts for the area of study. The units of this section take you step-by-step through the foundational terms and ideas, carefully providing you with an initial toolkit for your own study. By the end of the section, you will have a good overview of the whole field. B  Development – adds to your knowledge and builds on the key areas already introduced. Units in this section might also draw together several areas of interest. By the end of this section, you will already have a good and fairly detailed grasp of the field, and will be ready to undertake your own exploration and thinking. C  Exploration – provides examples of language data and guides you through your own investigation of the field. The units in this section will be more open-ended and exploratory, and you will be encouraged to try out your ideas and think for yourself, using your newly acquired knowledge. D  Extension – offers you the chance to compare your expertise with key readings in the area. These are taken from the work of important writers, and are provided with guidance and questions for further thought. You can read this book like a traditional textbook, ‘vertically’ straight through each unit from beginning to end. This will take you comprehensively through the broad field of study. However, the Routledge English Language Introductions have been carefully designed so that you can read them in another dimension, ‘horizontally’ as a strand across the numbered units. For example, Unit A1 corresponds with B1, C1 and D1 as a coherent strand; A2 with B2, C2 and D2, and so on. Reading across a strand will take you rapidly from the key concepts of a specific area, to a level of expertise in that precise area, all with a very close focus. You can match your way of reading with the way that you work best. The index of terms at the end, together with the suggestions for further reading, will help keep you orientated. This textbook has a supporting website with an extensive reference section, additional activities, a further reading list and annotated weblinks to online corpora www.routledge.com/cw/berry. CONTENTS  CROSS-REFERENCED INTRODUCTION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Sources of texts used References Index of terms and concepts DEVELOPMENT Approaches to grammar Word classes 2 78 Nouns Pronouns 7 82 Noun phrases and determiners Articles 14 87 Adjectives, adverbs and prepositions Types of adverb 20 93 Verbs and their forms The meanings of tense and aspect 28 97 Auxiliaries and the verb phrase Modal auxiliaries 34 105 Varying the verb phrase Multi-word verbs 40 109 Clauses and clause elements Verb patterns 45 113 Types of sentence Clause types 53 119 Subordinate clauses Relative clauses 58 126 Redesigning sentences Beyond and beneath the sentence 63 131 Grammar in speech and writing Reporting 70 135 CONTENTS  CROSS-REFERENCED EXPLORATION EXTENSION Words with multiple word-class membership What is grammar? (Michael Swan) 140 188 Nouns which can be both count and noncount Count and mass nouns (David Lee) 143 191 Usage problems with determiners Determiners: a class apart (Roger Berry) 147 199 The comparison of adjectives Prepositions and space (David Lee) 150 206 Distinguishing -ing and -ed forms Future time – a summary (Michael Lewis) 154 213 Verbs which can be transitive and intransitive Hedging and boosting (Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy) 158 220 Ergativity Words and phrases (John Sinclair) 162 226 Analysing clauses Semantic roles of the subject (Lynn M. Berk) 166 233 Exploring texts (1) Speech acts (Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy) 170 240 Exploring texts (2) Conditionals (Michael Lewis; Dave Willis) 173 246 Exploring texts (3): putting it all together Subject, actor, theme (Michael Halliday) 176 251 Analysing spoken texts Grammar in the construction of online discussion messages (Ann Hewings and Caroline Coffin) 182 256 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Sources of texts used References Index of terms and concepts FIGU RES AN D TAB LE S Figures A1.3.1 A3.1.1 A4.1.1 A4.1.2 A6.2.1 A6.4.1 A6.4.2 A7.3.1 A9.2.1 B5.1.1 B7.5.1 B9.6.1 C10.1.1 C10.1.2 The relationship between different types of grammar The four parts of a noun phrase The meaning of comparatives and superlatives 1 The meaning of comparatives and superlatives 2 Analysis of incorrect verb phrase structure 1 Analysis of incorrect verb phrase structure 2 Analysis of incorrect verb phrase structure 3 Interaction of negatives, interrogatives and contractions The relationship between different types of sentence Expressing past time in English Distinguishing prepositional and phrasal verbs The relationship between form and function Analysis of a complex sentence A tree diagram of grammatical structure 6 15 23 23 36 39 39 44 55 100 112 125 174 175 How ‘adjectival’ are adjectives? How ‘adjectival’ are adjectives? Suggested answers Forms of regular and irregular verbs Verb phrase structure Common contractions The word classes of English The personal pronoun paradigm The personal pronoun paradigm revised The difference between the and a with singular count nouns Modal auxiliaries: intrinsic and extrinsic meanings Frequencies of phrasal and inflectional comparison 24 28 30 36 42 79 83 86 93 107 152 Tables A4.1.1 A4.3.1 A5.1.1 A6.2.1 A7.2.1 B1.3.1 B2.2.1 B2.5.1 B3.7.1 B6.3.1 C4.2.1 ACKNO WL E D GE MENT S The author and publisher wish to thank all mentioned below for permission to reproduce copyright materials. While every effort has been made to find the copyright holders of materials used in this volume, the publishers would be happy to hear from any they have been unable to contact and will make any necessary amendment at the earliest opportunity. Michael Swan, 2005, ‘What is grammar for?’, Chapter 1, in OILS: Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 4–7. © Oxford University Press. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press. David Lee, 2001, ‘Count and mass nouns.’ Chapter 8 in Cognitive Linguistics. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp. 137–145. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press Australia. © Oxford University Press, www.oup.com.au. Roger Berry, 1998, ‘Determiners: a class apart?’ In English Today, 14/1, pp. 27–34. © Cambridge University Press, reproduced with permission. David Lee, 2001, ‘Space.’ Chapter 2 in Cognitive Linguistics. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp. 18–24. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press Australia. © Oxford University Press, www.oup.com.au Michael Lewis, 1986, ‘Future time – a summary’. Chapter 17 in The English Verb. Hove: Language Teaching Publications, pp. 139–146. Carter and McCarthy, 2006, ‘Hedging and Boosting’ from Cambridge Grammar of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 279–284. John Sinclair, 2001, ‘Words and Phrases’, Chapter 5 in Corpus, Concordance, Collocation, pp. 67–79. Oxford: Oxford University Press. © Oxford University Press. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press. Lynn M. Berk, 1999, Section on ‘Semantic roles of the subject’, pp. 14–21/23 in English Syntax: from Word to Discourse. New York: Oxford University Press. Carter and McCarthy, 2006, The ‘Chapter’ on Speech Acts, Cambridge Grammar of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 680–84. Michael Lewis, 1986, section on Conditional Sentences, The English Verb, pp. 148–150, Hove: Language Teaching Publications. Dave Willis, 1994, the section on The Second Conditional, pages 59–60 of ‘The Lexical Approach’, in M. Bygate, A. Tonkyn and E. Williams, Grammar and the Language Teacher, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International. Michael Halliday, 2004, Section 2.6 on Subject, Actor, Theme, pages 53 and 55–58 in An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 3rd edition, London: Arnold. Reproduced by permission of Hodder Education.