The translator invisibility

x Preface and acknowledgements Maule, Sally Mitchell, Daniel OHara, Toby Olson, Douglas Robinson, Stephen Sartarelli, Richard Sieburth, Alan Singer, Nigel Smith, Susan Stewart, Robert Storey, Evelyn Tribble, William Van Wert, Justin Vitiello, William Weaver, Sue Wells, and John Zilcosky. Others assisted me by providing useful and sometimes essential information: Raymond Bentman, Sara Goldin Blackburn, Robert E.Brown, Emile Capouya, Cid Corman, Rob Fitterman, Peter Glassgold, Robert Kelly, Alfred MacAdam, Julie Scott Meisami, M.L.Rosenthal, Susanne Stark, Suzanna Tamminen, Peter Tasch, Maurice Valency, and Eliot Weinberger. Of course none of these people can be held responsible for what I finally made of their contributions. For opportunities to share this work with various audiences in the United States and abroad, I thank Carrie Asman, Joanna Bankier, Susan Bassnett, Cedric Brown, Craig Eisendrath, Ed Foster, Richard Alan Francis, Seth Frechie and Andrew Mossin, Theo Hermans, Paul Hernadi, Robert Holub, Sydney Lộvy, Gregory Lucente, Carol Maier, Marie-josộ Minassian, Anu Needham, Yopie Prins, Marilyn Gaddis Rose, Sherry Simon, William Tropia, and Immanuel Wallerstein. I am grateful to the staffs of the libraries where much of the research was carried out: the British Library; the Archive for New Poetry, Mandeville Department of Special Collections, University of California, San Diego; Rare Books and Manuscripts, Butler Library, Columbia University; the Library Company, Philadelphia; the Nottingham City Archive; the Inter-Library Loan Department, Paley Library, Temple University; and the Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. I am especially thankful to Bett Miller of the Archive for New Poetry, who did a special job of helping me secure copies of many documents in the Paul Blackburn Collection, and to Adrian Henstock of the Nottingham City Archive, who enabled me to consult Lucy Hutchinsons commonplace book. Philip Cronenwett, Chief of Special Collections at Dartmouth College Library, kindly answered my questions about the Ramon Guthrie papers. Various individuals and institutions have granted permission to quote from the following copyrighted materials: Excerpts from Mary Barnard, Sappho: A New Translation, copyright â 1958 by The Regents of the University of California, â renewed 1984 by Mary Barnard; and from Assault on Mount Helicon: A Literary Memoir, copyright â 1984 by Mary Barnard. Excerpts from Paul Blackburns correspondence, translations, and nonfiction, copyright â 1995 by Joan Miller-Cohn. Excerpts from The General editors preface xi Collected Poems of Paul Blackburn, copyright â 1985 by Joan Blackburn. Reprinted by permission of Persea Books, Inc. Excerpts from the writings of Macmillan employees: editor Emile Capouyas letter to John Ciardi, Capouyas letter to Ramon Guthrie, Guthries report on Paul Blackburns Anthology of Troubadour Poetry. Reprinted by permission of Macmillan College Publishing Company, New York: 1958. All rights reserved. Excerpts from End of the Game and Other Stories by Julio Cortỏzar, translated by Paul Blackburn, copyright â 1967 by Random House, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Pantheon Books, a division of Random House, Inc. Excerpts from Translators Preface by Robert Fagles, from Homer: The Iliad, translated by Robert Fagles, translation copyright â 1990 by Robert Fagles. Introduction and notes copyright â 1990 by Bernard Knox. Used by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Books USA, Inc. Excerpts from Poems from the Greek Anthology, translated by Dudley Fitts, copyright â 1938, 1941, 1956, by New Directions Publishing Corporation. Excerpts from Dudley Fittss essay, The Poetic Nuance, reprinted by permission from On Translation edited by Reuben A.Brower, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, copyright â 1959 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Excerpts from Ramon Guthries poetry and translations, used by permission of Dartmouth College. Eugenio Montales poem, Mottetti VI, is reprinted by permission from Tutte le poesie edited by Giorgio Zampa, copyright â 1984 by Arnoldo Mondadori Editore SpA, Milano. Excerpts from the works of Ezra Pound: The ABC of Reading, all rights reserved; Literary Essays, copyright â 1918, 1920, 1935 by Ezra Pound; The Letters of Ezra Pound 19071941, copyright â 1950 by Ezra Pound; Selected Poems, copyright â 1920, 1934, 1937 by Ezra Pound; The Spirit of Romance, copyright â 1968 by Ezra Pound; Translations, copyright â 1954, 1963 by Ezra Pound. Used by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation and Faber & Faber Ltd. Previously unpublished material by Ezra Pound, copyright â 1983 and 1995 by the Trustees of the Ezra Pound Literary Property Trust; used by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation and Faber & Faber Ltd, agents. The tables, U.S. Book Exports, 1990, U.S. Book Exports to Major Countries, 19891990, and World Translation Publications: From Selected Languages, 19821984. Reprinted (as Tables 1 and 2) from the xii Preface and acknowledgements 5 July 1991 issue of Publishers Weekly, published by Cahners Publishing Company, a division of Reed Publishing USA. Copyright â 1991 by Reed Publishing USA. The Best Seller List for Fiction from The New York Times Book Review, 9 July 1967, copyright â 1967 by The New York Times Company. Reprinted by permission. Excerpts from the agreement between myself and Farrar, Straus & Giroux for the translation of Delirium by Barbara Alberti, used by permission of Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following journals, where some of this material appeared in earlier versions: Criticism, Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, SubStance, Talisman: A Journal of Contemporary Poetry and Poetics, Textual Practice, To: A Journal of Poetry, Prose, and the Visual Arts, and TTR Traduction, Terminologie, Rộdaction: Etudes sur le texte et ses transformations. An earlier version of chapter 4 appeared in my anthology, Rethinking Translation: Discourse, Subjectivity, Ideology (Routledge, 1992). My work was supported in part by a Research and Study Leave, a Summer Research Fellowship, and a Grant in Aid from Temple University. My thanks to Nadia Kravchenko, for expertly preparing the typescript and computer disks, and to Don Hartman, for assisting in the production process. The graphs displaying patterns in translation publishing (Figures 1 and 2) were prepared by Chris Behnam of Key Computer Services, New York City. All unattributed translations in the following pages are mine. Come la sposa di ogni uomo non si sottrae a una teoria del tradurre (Milo De Angelis), I am reduced to an inadequate expression of my gratitude to Lindsay Davies, who has taught me much about English, and much about the foreign in translation. L.V. New York City January 1994 Chapter 1 Invisibility I see translation as the attempt to produce a text so transparent that it does not seem to be translated. A good translation is like a pane of glass. You only notice that its there when there are little imperfections scratches, bubbles. Ideally, there shouldnt be any. It should never call attention to itself. Norman Shapiro I Invisibility is the term I will use to describe the translators situation and activity in contemporary Anglo-American culture. It refers to two mutually determining phenomena: one is an illusionistic effect of discourse, of the translators own manipulation of English; the other is the practice of reading and evaluating translations that has long prevailed in the United Kingdom and the United States, among other cultures, both English and foreignlanguage. A translated text, whether prose or poetry, fiction or nonfiction, is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers, and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, giving the appearance that it reflects the foreign writers personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign textthe appearance, in other words, that the translation is not in fact a translation, but the original. The illusion of transparency is an effect of fluent discourse, of the translators effort to insure easy readability by adhering to current usage, maintaining continuous syntax, fixing a precise meaning. What is so remarkable here is that this illusory effect conceals the numerous conditions under which the translation is made, starting with the translators crucial intervention in the foreign text The more fluent the translation, the 2 The Translators Invisibility more invisible the translator, and, presumably, the more visible the writer or meaning of the foreign text. The dominance of fluency in English-language translation becomes apparent in a sampling of reviews from newspapers and periodicals. On those rare occasions when reviewers address the translation at all, their brief comments usually focus on its style, neglecting such other possible questions as its accuracy, its intended audience, its economic value in the current book market, its relation to literary trends in English, its place in the translators career. And over the past fifty years the comments are amazingly consistent in praising fluent discourse while damning deviations from it, even when the most diverse range of foreign texts is considered. Take fiction, for instance, the most translated genre worldwide. Limit the choices to European and Latin American writers, the most translated into English, and pick examples with different kinds of narrativesnovels and short stories, realistic and fantastic, lyrical and philosophical, psychological and political. Here is one possible list: Albert Camuss The Stranger (1946), Franỗoise Sagans Bonjour Tristesse (1955), Heinrich Bửlls Absent Without Leave (1965), Italo Calvinos Cosmicomics (1968), Gabriel Garcớa Mỏrquezs One Hundred Years of Solitude (1970), Milan Kunderass The Book of Laughter and Forgetting (1980), Mario Vargas Llosas In Praise of the Stepmother (1990), Julia Kristevas The Samurai (1991), Gianni Celatis Appearances (1992), Adolfo Bioy Casaress A Russian Doll (1992). Some of these translations enjoyed considerable critical and commercial success in English; others made an initial splash, then sank into oblivion; still others passed with little or no notice. Yet in the reviews they were all judged by the same criterionfluency. The following selection of excerpts comes from various British and American periodicals, both literary and mass-audience; some were written by noted critics, novelists, and reviewers: Stuart Gilberts translation seems an absolutely splendid job. It is not easy, in translating French, to render qualities of sharpness or vividness, but the prose of Mr. Gilbert is always natural, brilliant, and crisp. (Wilson 1946:100) The style is elegant, the prose lovely, and the translation excellent. (New Republic 1955:46) Invisibility 3 In Absent Without Leave, a novella gracefully if not always flawlessly translated by Leila Vennewitz, Bửll continues his stern and sometimes merciless probing of the conscience, values, and imperfections of his countrymen. (Potoker 1965:42) The translation is a pleasantly fluent one: two chapters of it have already appeared in Playboy magazine. (Times Literary Supplement 1969:180) Rabassas translation is a triumph of fluent, gravid momentum, all stylishness and commonsensical virtuosity. (West 1970:4) His first four books published in English did not speak with the stunning lyrical precision of this one (the invisible translator is Michael Henry Heim). (Michener 1980:108) Helen Lanes translation of the title of this book is faithful to Mario Vargas LlosasElogio de la Madrastrabut not quite idiomatic. (Burgess 1990:11) The Samurai, a transparent roman clef, fluently translated by Barbara Bray, chronicles Ms. Kristevasand Parissintellectual glory days. (Steiner 1992:9) In Stuart Hoods translation, which flows crisply despite its occasionally disconcerting British accent, Mr. Celatis keen sense of language is rendered with precision. (Dickstein 1992:18) Often wooden, occasionally careless or inaccurate, it shows all the signs of hurried work and inadequate revision. [] The Spanish original here is 10 words shorter and incomparably more elegant. (Balderston 1992:15) The critical lexicon of post-World War II literary journalism is filled with so many terms to indicate the presence or absence of a fluent translation discourse: crisp, elegant, flows, gracefully, 

Words in common between english and portuguese



Ultimate word power

03_WP_fin.qxp 2/7/06 4:50 PM Page 9 CITIZENSHIP WORDS Our nation, its welfare, and our relationships with other countries have been much on our minds lately. So it is an opportune time to review words that relate to citizenship, diplomacy and current events. The final word (number 15) was new to us—and it’s tough, but give it a try! 1 . nationalism n.—A: ethnic heritage. B: political party. C: patriotism. D: pride. 2. unilateralist n.—someone who A: acts alone. B: acts suspicious. C: is tenacious. D: is dogmatic. 3. preempt v.—A: to claim. B: arrive early. C: select. D: oppose. 4. stateless adj.—lacking a A: passport. B: nationality. C: bank statement. D: visa. 5. civitas n.—A: body of people. B: body of law. C: good manners. D: characteristics of civilians. 6. mandate n.—A: division of the United Nations. B: legal impediment. C: South African township. D: authorization to act. 7. enfranchise v.—A: to vote. B: extend credit. C: grant citizenship. D: open a store. 8. appeasement n.—A: forgiving and forgetting. B: yielding to demands. C: real estate regulation. D: obsession with one’s appearance. 9. despotic adj.—A: despairing. B: magical. C: extremely bombastic. D: tyrannical. 10. casus belli n.—an event that A: triggers a declaration of war. B: causes confusion. C: makes church bells ring. D: is an omen of good weather. 11 . sanctions n.—A: rewards. B: rooms in a church. C: punitive measures. D: terms of employment. 12. consensus n.—A: implicit social contract. B: burden. C: collective opinion. D: understanding between two people. 13. accord n.—A: treaty. B: diplomatic agreement. C: peace. D: letter of intent. 14. onus n.—A: misrepresentation. B: body of work. C: guilt. D: obligation. 15. vexillology* n.—A: the art of annoying people. B: the study of flags. C: a branch of meteorology. D: a military science. *Give yourself an extra 5 ratings points if you know this one! 9 03_WP_fin.qxp 2/7/06 WORD POWER I 4:50 PM Page 10 F AV O R I T E S U B J E C T S ANSWERS 1 . nationalism —[C] Patriotism; loyalty to one’s own nation; as, The rally in Washington was imbued with the spirit of nationalism. 2. unilateralist —[A] Someone who acts alone or on behalf of only one side, party or nation; as, Recent newspaper accounts have described President Bush as a unilateralist. 3. preempt —[A] To claim; forestall by acting first. From preemption, based on Latin praeemere (buy beforehand). 4. stateless —[B] Lacking a nationality; as, Those who seek political asylum are sometimes stateless. From Latin status. 5. civitas —[A] Body of people constituting a politically organized community; as, Flags visually represent the civitas of a nation. Latin. 6. mandate —[D] Authorization to act, given to a representative by the electorate; any authoritative order or command. From Latin mandare (give as commission). 7. enfranchise —[C] To grant or admit to citizenship; to set free; as, Liberation movements seek to enfranchise the citizenry. From Middle French enfranchir (to free). 9. despotic —[D] Tyrannical; oppressive; as, Many Third World governments are despotic. From the Greek despotes (master). 10. casus belli —[A] An event that triggers or justifies a declaration of war; as, Pearl Harbor was a casus belli. 11 . sanctions —[C] Punitive measures usually taken by several nations together, designed to put pressure on another country; also, approvals. Latin sancto. 12. consensus —[C] Collective opinion or judgment; as, It was the consensus we should act now. Latin consentire. 13. accord —[B] Diplomatic agreement without the binding force of a treaty; as, The Camp David accords were meant to be a framework for peace in the Middle East. 14. onus —[D] Obligation or task, especially a difficult one; as, The onus of peacekeeping around the world has often fallen to Americans. Latin (load, burden). 15. vexillology —[B] Study of flags; as, Someone with no background in vexillology may confuse the Irish and Italian flags. Latin vexill(um). 8. appeasement —[B] Yielding to often unreasonable demands; pacification; as, Allowing a dictator free rein is appeasement of the worst sort. Middle English apesen. VOCABULARY RATINGS 10-11 Good 12-13 Excellent 14-15 Exceptional 10 03_WP_fin.qxp 2/7/06 4:50 PM Page 11 LAW ENFORCEMENT WORDS Back in a simpler time, the only cop lingo you had to know was “Book ’em, Danno.” It’s a lot tougher to follow the dialogue between the detectives and the DAs on “Law and Order” and the many other police shows that seem to dominate television these days. Here are some words to help you talk the talk. 1 . Mirandize v.—A: to frisk. B: advise of legal rights. C: question. D: coerce a confession from. 2. appellant n.—someone who A: makes a plea. B: files a police report. C: falsifies his name. D: recruits. 3. expedite v.—A: to turn over. B: issue a warning. C: walk the beat. D: do quickly. 4. skell n.—A: tainted physical evidence. B: vagrant. C: con man. D: police informant. 5. recidivism n.—A: withholding information. B: racial profiling. C: fingerprint analysis. D: relapse into crime. 6. arraign v.—A: to postpone. B: bring before a court to answer charges. C: testify. D: award a favorable verdict. 7. backlog n.—A: intentional delay. B: low-priority incident. C: unfinished cases. D: cop hangout. 8. adjudicate v.—A: to do paperwork. B: treat equally. C: determine. D: bribe. 9. bailiff n.—A: court officer. B: bondsman. C: fugitive. D: judicial assistant. 10. recognizance n.—A: lineup. B: disguise. C: obligation. D: increased patrols. 11 . remand v.—A: to set free. B: bring to trial again. C: send back. D: handcuff. 12. bench warrant n.—A: security guard. B: order to arrest. C: superior court judge. D: permission to speak. 13. perpetrator n.—A: snitch. B: crime-doer. C: suspect. D: repeat offender. 14. depose v.—A: to affirm under oath. B: corroborate. C: speculate. D: slouch. 15. due process n.—A: just punishment. B: waiting period. C: bureaucratic red tape. D: course of laws and procedures. 16. exculpatory adj.—relating to A: opening trial arguments. B: disavowal. C: criminal behavior. D: exoneration. 11 03_WP_fin.qxp 2/7/06 WORD POWER I 4:50 PM Page 12 F AV O R I T E S U B J E C T S ANSWERS 1 . Mirandize —[B] To advise someone being arrested of his rights, under the Miranda rule, to remain silent and have an attorney present during questioning. From the U.S. Supreme Court decision Miranda v. Arizona. 2. appellant —[A] A person who makes a plea for judgment from a higher authority; as, The appellant hoped a technicality would void his verdict. Latin appellare (accost). 3. expedite —[D] To complete 9. bailiff —[A] An officer, similar to a sheriff, who keeps order in the court. Old French (porter). 10. recognizance —[C] A legal obligation or bond binding a person to appear for trial. Middle English. 11 . remand —[C] To send a prisoner or accused person back into custody to await trial or further investigation; as, He was remanded to the county jail while the grand jury was selected. Old French remander (to send word back). quickly or in a timely fashion; as, Defense motions made it impossible to expedite the trial. From Latin ex- (out) and pedis (foot), meaning to free feet from fetters. 12. bench warrant —[B] Order issued 4. skell —[B] Vagrant; police term for commits a crime; as, A SWAT team searched the abandoned building for the perpetrator. (In cop talk, shortened to perp.) someone who looks like a drug user or seems down-and-out. Shortened form of skeleton. 5. recidivism —[D] Relapse into a former behavior, especially criminal activities. From Latin re- (back) and cadere (to fall). 6. arraign —[B] To bring before a court to hear and answer charges. Latin ad- (to) and ratio (reason). 7. backlog —[C] An accumulation of cases that the legal system is incapable of dealing with in a timely manner; as, Busy municipal courts often have a backlog of months. by a judge or court for an arrest; as, Worried the suspect might flee, the DA requested a bench warrant. 13. perpetrator —[B] A person who 14. depose —[A] To affirm or testify under oath, often in writing; as, The witness was deposed beforehand. Old French deposer (to put down). 15. due process —[D] The course of legal proceedings that protect an individual’s rights and liberties; as, In democracies, citizens are entitled to due process of the law. 16. exculpatory —[D] Relating to vindication; tending to clear from guilt. Latin ex- and culpare (to blame). 8. adjudicate —[C] To determine or judge; as, His claim will be adjudicated. Latin ad- and judicare (judge). VOCABULARY RATINGS 10-12 Good 13-14 Excellent 15-16 Exceptional 12 03_WP_fin.qxp 2/7/06 4:50 PM Page 13 TRAVEL WORDS It may be two weeks at the shore, or perhaps a grand tour of Europe, or something as simple as a long weekend with the grandparents. Whatever we choose, most of us sure love our vacations. Before you hit the road or fly the friendly skies, take our quiz of words you might need on holiday. 1 . agoraphobia n.—fear of A: flying. B: getting lost. C: public places. D: furry animals. 2. cay (key) n.—A: passageway. B: reef. C: monetary unit. D: valley. 3. amenities n.—A: useful features. B: formal introductions. C: taxes. D: young pickpockets. 4. halcyon adj.—A: foreign. B: tiring. C: happy. D: mazelike. 5. traipse v.—A: to rush. B: walk aimlessly. C: violate. D: crush. 6. red-eye n.—A: complicated form. B: poorly lit room. C: bar. D: overnight flight. 7. brasserie n.—A: lingerie shop. B: airplane crew. C: restaurant. D: souvenir stand. 8. queue n.—A: question. B: side road. C: gate. D: waiting line. 9. concierge n.—A: wine specialist. B: headwaiter. C: service representative. D: busboy. 10. baksheesh n.—A: tip. B: hallucinogenic drug. C: babble. D: head covering. 11 . sultry adj.—A: unhappy. B: sweltering. C: assorted. D: colorful. 12. antipodean adj.—A: on foot. B: opposite. C: unhealthful. D: cleansing. 13. turista n.—A: tour bus. B: illness. C: visa stamp. D: foot pain. 14. contraband n.—A: money belt. B: Latin musical group. C: customs inspector. D: illegal goods. 15. tarn n.—A: tall tale. B: mountain lake. C: meadow. D: runway. 16. ambiance n.—A: hostility. B: temporary camp. C: atmosphere. D: medical vehicle. 17. incidentals n.—A: short encounters. B: minor expenses. C: forbidden carry-ons. D: mementos. 18. estivate v.—A: to change clothes. B: guess at. C: exert oneself. D: pass the summer. 13 03_WP_fin.qxp 2/7/06 WORD POWER I 4:50 PM Page 14 F AV O R I T E S U B J E C T S ANSWERS 1 . agoraphobia —[C] Extreme fear of public places or crowds; as, My agoraphobia kept me housebound. Greek agora (marketplace). 2. cay —[B] Reef or low bank of coral or sand; as, We went snorkeling to explore the cay. Spanish cayo. 3. amenities —[A] Useful or desirable features of a place; as, a resort with impressive amenities. Latin amoenus (pleasant). 4. halcyon —[C] Idyllically happy; peaceful; as, the halcyon summers on Cape Cod. From Greek alkyon (kingfisher), in legend a bird that could calm the seas. 5. traipse —[B] To walk aimlessly or wearily; wander; as, We traipsed all over town looking for an ATM. Of uncertain 16th-century origin. 6. red-eye —[D] Overnight flight; as, I took the red-eye to be at work on Monday morning. 7. brasserie —[C] Informal restaurant, usually with a selection of drinks. French, from brasser (to brew). 8. queue —[D] Waiting line; as, a queue that stretched for blocks. French, from Latin cauda (tail). 9. concierge —[C] Hotel service representative who assists guests with special arrangements. French (originally, warden of a castle or prison). 10. baksheesh —[A] In Egypt, a form 11 . sultry —[B] Sweltering; hot and humid; as, sultry August days. From Middle English swelten (to swoon away). 12. antipodean —[B] Directly opposite, especially in reference to sides of the earth; as, The antipodean day is the day gained when crossing the International Dateline. Greek antipodes (having the feet opposite). 13. turista —[B] Gastrointestinal illness afflicting travelers; as, A street snack gave me turista. Spanish (tourist). 14. contraband —[D] Goods that have been imported or exported illegally. From Italian contra (against) and bando (ban). 15. tarn —[B] Mountain lake; as, This trail through the woods leads to the tarn. Old Norse tjörn (literally, a hole filled with water). 16. ambiance —[C] Atmosphere; character; as, the hotel’s luxurious ambiance. French (surroundings). 17 . incidentals —[B] Minor expenses or items; as, Make sure you have cash for incidentals. From Latin incidere (to fall upon, happen to). 18. estivate —[D] To pass or spend the summer in a certain activity, especially (like some animals) in a dormant state; as, Snails estivate, but children shouldn’t. From Latin aestivatus (resided during summer). of tip or bribe; as, A little baksheesh might get you in the museum a lot quicker. From Persian bakhshidan (to give). VOCABULARY RATINGS 10-12 Good 13-15 Excellent 16-18 Exceptional 14 

Understanding language teaching from method to postmethod

x CONTENTS 2.3.6. Environmental Factors 42 2.4. Intake Processes 45 2.4.1. Inferencing 45 2.4.2. Structuring 46 2.4.3. Restructuring 47 2.5. Output 48 2.6. An Interactive Framework of Intake Processes 2.7. Conclusion 53 49 3 Teaching: Input and Interaction 55 3. Introduction 55 3.1. Input Modifications 57 3.1.1. Form-Based Input Modifications 58 3.1.2. Meaning-Based Input Modifications 60 3.1.3. Form- and Meaning-Based Input Modifications 3.2. Interactional Activities 65 3.2.1. Interaction as a Textual Activity 66 3.2.2. Interaction as an Interpersonal Activity 70 3.2.3. Interaction as an Ideational Activity 71 3.3. Content Specifications 75 3.3.1. Syllabus Characteristics 75 3.3.2. Syllabus Classifications 79 3.4. Conclusion 80 PART TWO 62 LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS 4 Constituents and Categories of Methods 83 4. Introduction 83 4.1. Constituents of Language Teaching Methods 83 4.1.1. Method and Methodology 83 4.1.2. Approach, Method, and Technique 84 4.1.3. Approach, Design, and Procedure 86 4.1.4. Principles and Procedures 87 4.2. Categories of Language Teaching Methods 90 4.2.1. Language-Centered Methods 90 4.2.2. Learner-Centered Methods 91 4.2.3. Learning-Centered Methods 91 4.3. Designer Nonmethods 92 4.4. A Special Task 94 4.5. Conclusion 96 5 Language-Centered Methods 5. Introduction 97 5.1. Theoretical Principles 99 5.1.1. Theory of Language 97 99 xi CONTENTS 5.1.2. Theory of Language Learning 99 5.1.3. Theory of Language Teaching 101 5.1.4. Content Specifications 102 5.2. Classroom Procedures 103 5.2.1. Input Modifications 103 5.2.2. Interactional Activities 106 5.3. A Critical Assessment 109 5.4. Conclusion 113 6 Learner-Centered Methods 114 6. Introduction 114 6.1. Theoretical Principles 116 6.1.1. Theory of Language 116 6.1.2. Theory of Language Learning 118 6.1.3. Theory of Language Teaching 119 6.1.4. Content Specifications 121 6.2. Classroom Procedures 123 6.2.1. Input Modifications 124 6.2.2. Interactional Activities 125 6.3. A Critical Assessment 129 6.4. Conclusion 132 7 Learning-Centered Methods 134 7. Introduction 134 7.1. Theoretical Principles 136 7.1.1. Theory of Language 136 7.1.2. Theory of Language Learning 136 7.1.3. Theory of Language Teaching 142 7.1.4. Content Specifications 144 7.2. Classroom Procedures 146 7.2.1. Input Modifications 146 7.2.2. Interactional Activities 149 7.3. A Critical Assessment 156 7.4. Conclusion 157 PART THREE POSTMETHOD PERSPECTIVES 8 Postmethod Condition 8. Introduction 161 8.1. The Limits of Method 162 8.1.1. The Meaning of Method 162 8.1.2. The Myth of Method 163 8.1.3. The Death of Method 168 8.2. The Logic of Postmethod 170 8.2.1. Pedagogic Parameters 171 161 xii CONTENTS 8.2.2. Pedagogic Indicators 8.3. Conclusion 183 176 9 Postmethod Pedagogy 185 9. Introduction 185 9.1. The Three-Dimensional Framework 186 9.1.1. The Intralingual–Crosslingual Dimension 187 9.1.2. The Analytic-Experiential Dimension 189 9.1.3. The Explicit–Implicit Dimension 191 9.2. The Exploratory Practice Framework 193 9.2.1. The Principle of Exploratory Practice 195 9.2.2. The Practice of Exploratory Practice 196 9.2.3. The Global and the Local 198 9.3. The Macrostrategic Framework 199 9.3.1. Macrostrategies 201 9.3.2. Microstrategies 208 9.4. Conclusion 213 10 Postmethod Predicament 215 10. Introduction 215 10.1. Challenging Barriers 216 10.1.1. The Pedagogical Barrier 216 10.1.2. The Ideological Barrier 218 10.2. Facilitating Factors 221 10.3. Conclusion 223 Postscript: The Pattern Which Comforts 224 References 227 Author Index 245 Subject Index 251 Preface The Pattern Which Connects “Break the pattern which connects the items of learning,” warned the celebrated anthropologist, Gregory Bateson, “and you necessarily destroy all quality” (1979, p. 8, italics in original). He issued this warning in a letter to his fellow regents of the University of California, complaining about American schools that teach the students “almost nothing of the pattern which connects” (p. 8). Later, he made the phrase—the pattern which connects—the central thesis of his pioneering work, Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, in which he explored “the metapattern” that connects every living thing on this planet, or, as he put it, “What pattern connects the crab to the lobster and the orchid to the primrose and all the four of them to me? And me to you? And all the six of us to the amoeba in one direction and to the backward schizophrenic in another?” (p. 8). The pattern which connects. That’s what this book is all about. Not the so profound pattern that governs the evolution and ecology of all life on earth, but the more mundane pattern that connects the various elements of learning, teaching, and teacher education in the narrow field of teaching English to speakers of other languages. It may appear to be inappropriate or even anticlimactic, to link the concern for an understanding of the ecological macrocosm with the concern for an understanding of the pedagogical microcosm. But the whole point, if we follow the Batesonian argument, is that the elements constituting each are indeed interconnected in ways that may not be readily apparent. As one who has been engaged in English language teaching and teacher education for nearly a quarter century, I have always struggled with the problem of finding the pattern which connects. And, I have seen graduate xiii xiv PREFACE students, practicing teachers, and professional colleagues struggling to recognize the pattern which connects. It is not easy to perceive the barely visible deep structure patterns that connect different elements of a phenomenon unless one makes a long and laborious effort. Let me hasten to add that I am not merely talking about the need to connect the curricular objectives with class activities, teaching strategies with learning styles, evaluation measures with learning outcomes, and so on. Of course, they are all important. But, I am more concerned about the pattern which connects higher order philosophical, pedagogical, and ideological tenets and norms of language teaching that leads us to true understanding, not to false knowledge. It is the task of linking and expressing the pattern which connects the stated and the unstated higher order tenets of language teaching methods that I have set upon myself to do. I thought the task would not be very difficult, given my personal experience of learning and teaching English as a second language, and my professional knowledge of language learning, teaching, and teacher education. I was wrong. It did not take much time for me to realize that I have, after all, rushed in “where angels fear to tread.” One of the major challenges I faced was how to clear the conceptual cobwebs and terminological bedbugs prevalent in the combinations, harmonies, and discords between layers upon layers of theoretical principles, pedagogic practices, and political ideologies one comes across in the long history of English language teaching (ELT). A related challenge was how to separate the trivial from the profound, the fashion from the substance, and the chafe from the grain in order to reach the heart of the matter. At a relatively lower level, I was also faced with the challenge of determining the directions to take with regard to focus as well as audience. I convinced myself that, of all the related aspects of ELT, I know more about methods than about anything else. Besides, the concept of method has been a severely contested frame of reference for thinking and writing about classroom learning and teaching. Understandably, tensions and contradictions have arisen out of efforts aimed at its reconceptualization. Recently, the discourse on the limitations of the concept of method has become so prominent, and the desire to find alternatives to it so pronounced that they have resulted in what has been called the postmethod condition. I thought there is certainly a need to apply current thinking, and take a fresh look at language teaching methods, and therefore, I decided to focus sharply on them. In order to understand language teaching, and its slow transition from method to postmethod, I considered it necessary to take a historical perspective to the development of major language teaching methods. I decided to limit the historical orientation to about 50 years or so of innovations in language teaching, and not venture into earlier times. My rationale is that it is only during the second half of the 20th century, with the advent of audiolingualism, that the language teaching profession entered a decid- PREFACE xv edly systematic and theory-driven phase. In looking back at the past and in looking forward to the future, I have tried to create a historical significance filtered through the prism of my own personal experience and professional understanding. In that sense, this book marks the merging of the personal, the professional, and the historical. One more remark on the focus of this book is in order. In discussing language teaching methods, I do not see much merit in making any distinction between second and foreign languages, or between teaching English as a second/foreign language and teaching other languages such as French or Spanish as a second/foreign language. I have always felt that these distinctions are based more on proprietorial rights than on pedagogical reasoning. In any case, these distinctions do not matter much to an investigation and interpretation of higher order tenets of language pedagogy. For illustrative purposes, however, I will be focusing on English language teaching; although, most of the issues and concerns treated in this book are applicable to language education in general. As for the readership, this book is intended primarily for graduate students, practicing teachers, and teacher educators. Clearly, they all bring varying degrees of prior knowledge and precise motivation to the task of deconstructing this text. It is almost impossible to appeal to all shades of potential readers unless everything is reduced to the lowest common denomination; I have not done that. As a result, each group will find some portions of the text more pertinent than others, and some portions more engaging than others. Teacher educators may find perspectives that are, in certain cases, different from the ones with which they are already familiar. Practicing teachers may find new connections that give them ideas that they may not have thought about before. Beginning level graduate students may find that some sections of the text require a more careful reading than others. Throughout the text, I have tried to explain the concepts and terms in as simple language as possible, without, at the same time, diluting the complexity of the issues, or “dumbing down” the reader. AN OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK As indicated earlier, I attempt to present in this book a personal and professional perspective of English language teaching methods—a perspective that is founded at once on historical action and contemporary thought. Drawing from seminal, foundational texts and from critical commentaries made by various scholars, I narrate the profession’s slow and steady march from method to postmethod, and in the process, elucidate the relationship between theory, research, and practice. I mix materials that are old and new. The book is divided into three parts: (1) Language, Learning, and 

Understanding learning in virtual worlds

x Editors’ Introduction: Understanding Learning in Virtual Worlds conducted via text-based chat and taking place within the virtual world. Their analysis of the successful and unsuccessful strategies, employed by both the researcher and the research subject, when communicating in virtual worlds, also reveal both the barriers and affordances that virtual worlds present. In effect, understanding the communication, and social relationship, between interviewer and interviewee also informs an understanding of how learners learn together, and returns us to the question of how socially constructed knowledge can best be supported within virtual worlds. The second part of the book builds on these fundamentals to establish many of the factors that support learning in virtual worlds. Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6 touch on two of the three aspects referred to above, those of space and of identity. Chapter 3, Designing for Hybrid Learning Environments in a Science Museum: Interprofessional Conceptualisations of Space, by Alfredo Jornet and Cecilie Flo Jahreie examines how different professional perspectives view space in different ways. Drawing on activity theory, and in this context viewing space as a mediating artefact that is negotiated by the various participants, Alfredo and Cecilie reveal how although our experience of virtual space resembles that of physical space, as Derek contends, it also has a flexibility which enables that meaning to be negotiated and conceptualised, and re-negotiated and re-conceptualised, resulting in virtual worlds being design tool, learning tool and locus for cultural communication in one. In Chap. 4, An Examination of Student Engagement, Knowledge Creation and Expansive Learning in a Virtual World, Brian Burton, Barbara Martin and Jenny Robins examine how students socially construct knowledge within a virtual world, by analysing interactions according to three separate theories of social construction of knowledge: the framework for student engagement, knowledge creation theory and the theory of expansive learning. Not only do they demonstrate the effectiveness of virtual worlds in supporting the social construction of knowledge, this approach also shows that all three theories of learning are applicable in understanding how learning in a virtual world environment can take place. In Chap. 5, The Strength of Cohesive Ties: Discursive Construction of an Online Learning Community, Rebecca Ferguson, Julia Gillen, Anna Peachey and Peter Twining also look at the social construction of knowledge, but in the later stages of its development, when the expression of self and of identity have grown to a point where community ties and an emergent society have appeared. Through an analysis of discourse within Schome (a space that takes aspects of both school and home) Rebecca et al. analyse the learning, and also the affective relationships that bear on communications between learners. In this case, the results of bringing two different communities together, and the communications and miscommunications that occur, can also be understood by applying concepts of community founded on the physical world. Chapter 6, +SPACES: Serious Games for Role-Playing Government Policies, merges the discussion on developing societies in virtual worlds with the role of space in virtual worlds. In their chapter, Bernard Horan and Michael Gardner explore the notion of virtual spaces as authentic simulations, which require both effective recreation of physical space with the recreation of specific roles for people to play in that space, and activities to carry out in those roles. These simulations do www.Atibook.ir Editors’ Introduction: Understanding Learning in Virtual Worlds xi not only include a virtual world, but link this to a variety of social media such as Twitter and Facebook. Unlike many other simulations, +SPACES takes a “glassbox” approach – participants can see the model underlying the simulation – which learners felt was more effective, and they also responded well to the activities being more structured. As with many simulations, the authenticity of the experience needs to be balanced against the need for structure in learning design. The final part of the book looks at applications of virtual worlds to three specific activities. The first of these, in Chap. 7 Avatars, Art and Aspirations: The Creative Potential for Learning in the Virtual World, by Simone Wesner, is using the environment of a virtual world to foster creative approaches. Simone’s students used Second Life to create their own event spaces, as well as to meet, discuss and plan their projects. In her analysis, Simone finds that the models for creativity and learning established in the physical world, such as Weisberg’s CHOICES model, still apply, but also discovers that the role of personalisation of the learner’s avatar, as introduced above, applied to her students; the avatar became the first focus of their creative interest, and on occasion, where their appearance could not be modified, the participants reported a negative impact on their well-being. Rather than re-creating their physical world, as the students’ experience developed they created exhibits that explored the discrepancy between the physical and virtual, in effect the virtual world itself was a springboard for reflection and creativity. Although the pedagogies of the physical world apply to the virtual, ontologically, Simone suggests, it “might encourage a discussion of virtual worlds from within, using a new terminology and accepting virtual worlds as a reality of their own, rather than trying to fit the limited understanding and interpretation of one reality to the virtual world.” In Chap. 8, Second Language Acquisition by Immersive and Collaborative TaskBased Learning in a Virtual World, Margaret de Jong Derrington looks at how theories of language acquisition apply across a range of platforms: the physical world, Skype and OpenSim. There are minor differences in functionality, and virtual worlds afford greater support for anonymity and authentic task-based learning than other environments, but yet again we see that an understanding developed in the physical world of how learners learn, in this case English as a Second Language, applies directly to understanding the acquisition of language in a virtual classroom. The techniques, of role-play, immersion and task-based learning translate exactly. In Chap. 9, Do Virtual Worlds Support Engaging Social Conferencing?, as an appendix to this discussion on learning, Andreas Schmeil, Béatrice Hasler, Anna Peachey, Sara de Freitas and Claus Nehmzow look at the practical implications of conducting a conference within a virtual world. Many of the gains of such activity are self-evident – no travel costs, and the potential with three loci in different timezones to run the conference over a 24 h period. However, replicating a physical world model alone meant that opportunities for networking and mingling, which happen spontaneously in a face-to-face conference, were less prevalent. In the move from physical to virtual, some aspects are easily translated, while others need more support and structure to occur. As the range of these platforms expand, OpenSim, OpenWonderland, Minecraft and massive multiplayer online role-play games such as World of Warcraft will not www.Atibook.ir xii Editors’ Introduction: Understanding Learning in Virtual Worlds only provide new pastures for those experienced in virtual worlds education, but will also draw in educators new to the nature and potential of virtual worlds. It is perhaps therefore even more valuable in periods like this, of transition and development, to take the opportunity to reflect and to review what we have learnt as practitioners and academics about the unique characteristics of these environments. Understanding how virtual worlds can support learners in their education through their special affordances and particular demands is important, but also within this volume the authors demonstrate how what we already know and understand about learning also applies, and that the physical and the virtual are not so different. It is hoped that this collection of reflections and experiences, capturing a snapshot of this ongoing development of understanding of learning in virtual worlds, will prove to be a resource for educators with both long-term familiarity with virtual worlds and those for whom using virtual worlds for education is a completely new endeavour. Mark Childs Anna Peachey References Barrett, S. (2002). Overcoming transactional distance as a barrier to effective communication over the internet. International Educational Journal, 3(4), Educational research conference 2002 special issue, 34–42. Bell, M. (2008). Toward a definition of “virtual worlds”. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 1(1), 1–5. Biocca, F. (1997). The Cyborg’s Dilemma: Progressive embodiment in virtual environments. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(2), 113–144. Botvinick, M., & Cohen, J. (1998). Rubber hands ‘feel’ touch that eyes see. Nature, 391, 756. Caspi, A., & Blau, I. (2008). Social presence in online discussion groups: Testing three conceptions and their relations to perceived learning. Social Psychology of Education, 11, 323–346. Childs, M. (2011, June 8–9). Enhancing learning, teaching and student success in virtual worlds: Why Rosa keeps dancing, opening keynote at SOLSTICE: Effective practices: Enhancing learning. In Teaching and student success conference, Edge Hill University. Childs, M. (2013). The experience of virtual space. In I. Kuksa & M. Childs (Eds.), Making sense of space. London: Chandos. Childs, M., & Chen, Y.-F. (2011, June 28–30). Roleplaying disaster management in second life. In 11th international DIVERSE conference, Dublin City University. Childs, M., & Kuksa, I. (2009, July 6–8). “Why are we in the floor?” Learning about theatre design in second lifeTM. In Proceedings of the Edulearn 09 international conference on education and new learning technologies (pp. 1134–1145). Barcelona, Spain. Ganesh, S., van Schie, H. T., de Lange, F. P., Thompson, E., & Wigboldus, D. H. J. (2012). How the human brain goes virtual: Distinct cortical regions of the person-processing network are involved in self-identification with virtual agents. Cerebral Cortex, 22(7), 1577–1585. Gonzalez, G., Younger, J., & Lindgren, R. (2011). The payoff of Avatar creation: Investigating the effects on learning and engagement. In Games + learning + society conference, Madison, June 15–17 2011. http://www.glsconference.org/2011/program/event/147 www.Atibook.ir Editors’ Introduction: Understanding Learning in Virtual Worlds xiii Heeter, C. (1995). Communication research on consumer VR. In F. Biocca & M. R. Levy (Eds.), Communication in the age of virtual reality (pp. 191–218). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mayes, T., & de Freitas, S. (2004). Review of e-learning frameworks, models and theories: JISC e-learning models desk study. London: JISC. Peachey, A., & Childs, M. (2011). Reinventing ourselves: Contemporary concepts of identity in virtual worlds. London: Springer. Peachey, A., Gillen, J., Livingstone, D., & Smith-Robbins, S. (2010). Researching learning in virtual worlds. London: Springer. Smith, A. D. (2007). The flesh of perception: Merleau-Ponty and Husserl. In T. Baldwin (Ed.), Reading Merleau-Ponty: On phenomenology of perception. Oxon: Routledge. Taylor, T. L. (2002). Living digitally: Embodiment in virtual worlds. In R. Schroeder (Ed.), The social life of Avatars (pp. 40–62). London: Springer. Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. www.Atibook.ir www.Atibook.ir Contents 1 An Alternative (to) Reality ....................................................................... Derek Jones 2 Guidelines for Conducting Text Based Interviews in Virtual Worlds ....................................................................................... Carina Girvan and Timothy Savage 21 Designing for Hybrid Learning Environments in a Science Museum: Inter-professional Conceptualisations of Space .................... Alfredo Jornet and Cecilie Flo Jahreie 41 An Examination of Student Engagement, Knowledge Creation and Expansive Learning in a Virtual World ........................... Brian G. Burton, Barbara Martin, and Jenny Robins 65 The Strength of Cohesive Ties: Discursive Construction of an Online Learning Community ......................................................... Rebecca Ferguson, Julia Gillen, Anna Peachey, and Peter Twining 83 3 4 5 1 6 +SPACES: Serious Games for Role-Playing Government Policies ...... 101 Bernard Horan and Michael Gardner 7 Avatars, Art and Aspirations: The Creative Potential for Learning in the Virtual World ........................................................... 117 Simone Wesner 8 Second Language Acquisition by Immersive and Collaborative Task-Based Learning in a Virtual World ................................................ 135 Margaret de Jong Derrington 9 Do Virtual Worlds Support Engaging Social Conferencing? ................ 165 Andreas Schmeil, Béatrice Hasler, Anna Peachey, Sara de Freitas, and Claus Nehmzow xv www.Atibook.ir 

Veja sete dicas para escolher um curso de inglês online

acertou 2 de 7 questões. Estude mais” mostra que é preciso mais esforço, diminui a ansiedade e ajuda a manter o interesse. 3 - Correção rápida e agilidade na comunicação Para os exercícios com respostas abertas, é preciso que a correção seja ágil: o ideal é que leve entre um e dois dias, no máximo. É bom ter cuidado quando há ausência de comunicação ou falhas no contato com professores e técnicos. Se ocorre demora na resolução de problemas ou na resposta às dúvidas, é sinal de que o curso não é sério. 4 - Foco nas quatro habilidades: falar, ouvir, ler e escrever É necessário checar se o curso tem ferramentas para treinar a fluência oral (a chamada “conversação”, que inclui a capacidade de entender e de responder adequadamente), a leitura e a escrita. Se seu foco é somente escrita e leitura, teoria, exercícios gramaticais e ortográficos ajudam a alcançar o objetivo. Para a conversação, é preciso verificar se a instituição tem recursos para teleconferências, que permitam a um professor ou tutor corrigir os problemas de pronúncia. 5 - Professor disponível Mesmo para cursos online, a disponibilidade de professores ou tutores é um ponto chave. É preciso que estes profissionais estejam a postos para corrigir textos e pronúncia. Normalmente, em cursos online o professor tira as dúvidas em chats, fóruns, videoconferências ou audioconferências. 6 - Teste de seu nível antes de começar O curso deve oferecer meios para a avaliação do seu conhecimento prévio do idioma. “Se você já tem uma noção e começa pelo básico, fica desmotivado e acaba desistindo”, aponta Rosangela. Com exercícios de proficiência, a escola consegue colocar numa mesma sala virtual alunos que estejam no mesmo nível de aprendizado do inglês. 7 - Cheque se há base teórica “É preciso tomar cuidado com a falta de explicação teórica, no caso de gramática, e com a falta de exercícios”, alerta Angelita. Fonte: http://educacao.uol.com.br Aperfeiçoe sua habilidade de ouvir em inglês com vídeos e exercícios de graça no Facebook: www.facebook.com/video.listening.practice 

Vocabulario básico de la lengua inglesa

LA HORA Usamos el verbo to be para indicar las horas junto a las siguientes estructuras: Para preguntar la hora usamos What’s the time? What time is it? Could you tell me the time please? O’clock. En punto. Proviene de la expresión of the clock. It is 8 o’clock. Half past. Y media. It is half past 9. A quarter to. Menos cuarto. It is a quarter to 6. A quarter past. Y cuarto It is a quarter past 7. To. Menos It is twenty to 4. Past. Y It is twenty past 4. Usamos a.m y p.m para indicar antes del mediodía y después del mediodía. También podemos usar In the morning. In the afternoon. At night. Midday= 12.00 am Midnight= 24.00 Los horarios de los medios de transporte se rigen por el sistema de 24 horas. I took the 18.30 plane to London. 12 NÚMEROS CARDINALES One. Uno. Eleven. Once. Two. Dos. Twelve. Doce. Three. Tres. Thirteen. Trece. Four. Cuatro. Fourteen. Catorce. Five. Cinco. Fifteen. Quince. Six. Seis. Sixteen. Dieciséis. Seven. Siete. Seventeen. Diecisiete. Eight. Ocho. Eighteen. Dieciocho. Nine. Nueve. Nineteen. Diecinueve. Ten. Diez. Twenty. Veinte. Thirty. Treinta. Eighty. Ochenta. Forty. Cuarenta. Ninety. Noventa. Fifty. Cincuenta. A hundred. Cien. Sixty. Sesenta. A thousand. Mil. Seventy. Setenta. A milion. Un millón. 13 • Se usa un guión entre los números comprendidos entre el 21 y 99. A partir del 100 se usará and. Twenty-one. Veintiuno. One hundred and three. Ciento tres. En Estados Unidos 1 billón equivale a 1,000,000,000. En Europa 1 billón equivale a 1,000,000,000,000. • Hundred, thousand, million y billion como son adjetivos no añaden “-s” I paid three million pesetas in 2001 for a car. Pagué tres millones de pesetas en el año 2001 por un coche. • Las fechas se indican de dos en dos I was born in 1962. Nací en en el año 1962. My grandmother Berta was born in 1900. Mi abuela Berta nació en (nineteen hundred). El 00 es hundred. • Los números de teléfono de uno en uno My phone number is 965436789. Mi número de teléfono es... • Se usa coma con los números: 1,000. • Se usa el punto con los decimales: 4.5. • En las horas se pueden usar uno o dos puntos: 3.45 o 3:45. • El 0 se pronncia /ou/ 14 LOS NÚMEROS ORDINALES • Con la excepción de first, second y third, los números ordinales se forman añadiendo “-th” a los ordinales. • Existen algunos que sí que se ven modificados: 5th 8th 9th 12th 20th Fifth. Eighth. Ninth. Twelfth. Twentieth. First. Primero. Eleventh. Undécimo. Second. Segundo. Twelfth. Duodécimo. Third. Tercero. Thirteenth. Decimotercero. Fourth. Cuarto. Fourteenth. Decimocuarto. Fifth. Quinto. Fiftteenth. Decimoquinto Sixth. Sexto. Sixteenth. Decimosexto. Seventh. Séptimo. Seventeenth. Decimoséptimo. Eighth. Octavo. Eighteenth. Decimoctavo. Ninth. Noveno. Nineteenth. Decimonoveno. Tenth. Décimo. Twentieth. Vigésimo. 15 • En las decenas “y” cambia por “-ie”. Hundred, thousand y million añaden “-th” Twenty. Thirty. Forty. Fifty. Sixty. Seventy. Twentieth. Thirtieth. Fortieth. Fiftieth. Sixtieth. Seventieth. USOS En fechas. November 30 t h . Capítulos. Chapter III. Monarcas. Juan Carlos I. ( The first) EQUIVALENCIA DE PESOS Y MEDIDAS 1 ounce. 28,35 gramos. 1 pound. 454 gramos. 1 inch. 2,45 centímetros. 1 foot. 30 centímetros. 1 mile. 1.610 metros. Milla terrestre. 1 mile. 1.852 metros. Milla marina. 1 pint. 0,57 litros. 1 gallon. 4,54 litros. 1 stone 6’356 kilos. 12 inches = 1 foot. 30,48 centimetros. 3 feet = 1 yard. 91,44 centimetros. 1760 yards= 1 mile=. 1,61 kilometres. 16 ounces= 1 pound 0,454 kilos. 16 PAISES Y NACIONALIDADES Brazil. Brasil. Brazilian. Britain. Gran Bretaña. British. Canada. Canadá. Canadian. China . China. Chinese. Denmark. Dinamarca. Danish. Egypt. Egipto. Egyptian. Europe. Europa. European. Finland . Finlandia. Finnish. France. Francia. French. Germany. Alemania. German. Greece. Grecia. Greek. Holland . Holanda. Dutch. Ireland . Irlanda. Irish. Italy. Italia. Italian. Japan. Japón. Japanese. 17 

We mean business an elementary course in business english



Webster´s dictionary of english usage

Websters new world law dictionary

02_542109 ftoc.qxp 3/28/06 12:15 PM Page ix Table of Contents Part I: Dictionary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Part II: Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Foreign Words and Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 The Constitution of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 02_542109 ftoc.qxp 3/28/06 12:15 PM Page x 03_542109 pt01.qxp 3/28/06 12:16 PM Page 1 Part I DICTIONARY 03_542109 pt01.qxp 3/28/06 12:16 PM Page 2 04_542109 ch01.qxp 3/28/06 12:16 PM Page 3 A the combined value of all bequests and devises, and/or the debts owed by a testator, exceed the assets in the testator’s estate. 4 n. The rebate or reduction of taxes already assessed and/or paid. abatement n. 1 The act of abating. 2 The process of, or the state of, being abated. 3 The amount abated. AAA abbr. See American Arbitration Association. AALS abbr. See Association American Law Schools. ABA abbr. Association. See American of Bar abandon v. 1 To intentionally give up for all time an assertion or a claim of an interest in property or in a right or privilege. 2 To repudiate, withdraw from, or otherwise disassociate oneself from a duty or responsibility. 3 To intentionally fail to complete. abandoned property See property. abandonee n. A person or party to whom property or a right has been abandoned or relinquished. abandonment n. 1 The act of abandoning property or a right with no intent of reclaiming it or of later giving it away or selling it. See also forfeiture, relinquishment, renunciation, surrender, and waiver. 2 The act of abandoning a person with the intent of terminating the duties or him or her. For example, the intentional failure by a parent to communicate with or to provide financial or other support to his children. See also desertion. abate 1 v. To end, eliminate, do away with, or make null and void. 2 v. To diminish, decrease, or lessen in degree or amount. 3 n. The reduction of a bequest or devise made in a will because abatement clause n. A contractual provision releasing the tenant of a lease from the obligation to pay rent when an act of God prevents the occupancy of the premises. abator n. A person who diminishes or eliminates a nuisance. ABC test n. A rule of law that allows employers not to provide unemployment compensation to independent contractors. The test for whether an individual is an independent contractor as opposed to an employee is threefold: 1) does the individual work independently of the employer’s control (A = alone); 2) does the individual maintain his own place of business (B = business); and 3) does the individual practice or work at an established trade, and exercise control over his own schedule and method of operation (C = control)? The name derives from the letters normally used to designate the three parts of the test. See contractor. abdication n. The act of a person or branch of government renouncing or abandoning an office, trust, sovereignty, privileges, or duties to which he or she is entitled, holds, or possesses by law. abduct v. 1 To carry or lead a person away from where he wants to be or wants to go by use of force, threats, or deception. 2 To restrain or conceal a person in order to prevent his escape or rescue. See also kidnapping. abet v. To actively, knowingly, and/or intentionally aid, encourage, incite, instigate, or otherwise support the commission of an act. 04_542109 ch01.qxp 3/28/06 12:16 PM Page 4 abeyance 4 abeyance n. 1 An indefinite or temporary state of inactivity or suspension. 2 An incomplete or undetermined state of existence. 3 The status of real property or of a position or title when its ownership or occupancy is not vested in any existing person or party. abortion n. 1 The premature termination of a pregnancy. 2 The intentional and artificial termination of a pregnancy that destroys an embryo or fetus. 3 The spontaneous expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it is capable of living outside the womb. abide v. 1 To await. 2 To accept or submit to. 3 To tolerate or withstand. 4 To adhere, execute, obey, perform, or otherwise act in conformity with. 5 To dwell, remain, reside, or stay. above adv. 1 Previously in the same chapter, document, or text. For example, a reference to a court case cited earlier in the same document. 2 Having the power to review the decisions regarding questions of fact and/or law made in a court. For example, appellate courts, such as the United States Supreme Court, are above, or can review, the decisions made by one or more trial courts. See jurisdiction, question of fact, and question of law. abiding adj. Certain; indestructible; permanent; steadfast; unaltering; unfaltering; unshakeable. ab initio adv. Latin. From the first act. From the beginning; back to one’s creation or inception. abnormally dangerous activity n. An undertaking so dangerous that, even if precautions and reasonable care are used, it cannot be safely performed and anyone who engages in it is strictly liable for any resulting injuries and damage, especially if 1) there is a risk of serious harm to people or property, 2) the activity cannot be performed in some other way that avoids those risks, and 3) the undertaking does not normally occur at the location where it is to take place. See also liability. abode 1 n. A dwelling, home, or other fixed place where a person resides. 2 v. Past tense and past participle of abide. abolish v. To abrogate, annul, cancel, eliminate, put an end to, recall, repeal, or revoke, especially things of a seemingly permanent nature, such as customs, institutions, and usages. abolition n. 1 The act of abolishing. 2 The legal abolition and prohibition of slavery. 3 The abolition of slavery in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. abridge v. 1 To diminish, lessen, or restrict a legal right. 2 To condense or shorten the whole of something, such as a book, and not merely a portion of it. abrogate v. 1 To annul, cancel, destroy, overturn, repeal, revoke, set aside, supercede, or otherwise do away with or put an end to. 2 To abolish a custom or law by some authoritative, formal, legislative, or other legally effective method. abscond v. 1 To secretly or suddenly leave a place or to go into hiding, especially to avoid arrest, prosecution, the service of a summons or other legal process, or an action by a creditor. 2 To leave a location, often in a hurry, with money or property of another. absent without leave n. The act of being away from one’s military duties or post without permission but with no intent of deserting. Abbreviated as AWOL. See also desertion. absentee n. A person who is not where he or she would normally be found, such as a place of residence or work. 

Websters new world medical dictionary

Fernando Dangond, MD, Neurology • Charles C.P. Davis, MD, PhD, Emergency Medicine • Roxanne Dryden-Edwards, MD, Psychiatry and Mental Health • Jason C. Eck, DO, MS, Orthopaedic Surgery • Steve Ehrlich, MD, Cardiology • Manuel Fernandez, MD, Endocrinology • Robert Ferry, MD, Pediatric Endocrinologist • Michael C. Fishbein, MD, Cardiovascular & Autopsy Pathology • Tse-Ling Fong, MD, Hepatology • Catherine G. Fuller, MD, Allergy & Immunology • Ronald Gehling, MD, Allergy & Immunolgy • Gus Gialamas, MD, Orthopedic Surgery • Gary W. Gibbon, MD, Pulmonary Disease & Allergy • Mitchell J. Gitkind, MD, Gastroenterology • Vay Liang W. Go, MD, Nutrition • Sandra Gonzalez Gompf, MD, FACP, FIDSA, Infectious Disease • Jayson Goo, ATC, MA, CKTI, Human Performance/Corrective Therapy • Daniel L. Gomel, MD, Internal Medicine & Geriatrics • Mark Graber, MD, Family Practice • Harold H. Harsch, MD, Psychiatry • Roza Hayduk, MD, Sleep Medicine • Barbara K. Hecht, PhD • Frederick Hecht, MD, FAAP • Standiford Helm III, MD, Anesthesiologist/Pain Management • Kendall Ho, MD, Emergency Medicine • Debra E. Houry, MD, MPH, Emergency Medicine/Women’s Health • Camille Marie Teres Hylton, MD, Ophthamology • David Kaminstein, MD, Gastroenterology • Kenneth Kaye, MD, Pathology • Jillyen E. Kibby, M.A., CCC-A, Audiology • Harley J. Kornblum, MD, Pediatrics & Neurology • Betty Kovacs, MS, RD, Nutrition • Daniel Lee Kulick, MD, FACC, FSCAI., Internal Medicine & Cardiology • Eric Lee, MD, Gastroenterology • Margaret Lee, DDS, Dentistry • Stacy E. Lee, MD, Allergy & Immunology • Michael Lill, MD, Hematology/Oncology • Arthur H. Loussararian, MD, Inetrnal Medicine & Cardiology • Ralph Maeda, MD, Surgery • Dwight Makoff, MD, Nephrology & Hypertension • Murray Margolis, MD, Internal Medicine • Randy Martin, MD, Pulmonary/Infectious Diseases • James Meaglia, MD, Urology • John Mersch, MD, Pediatrics • Michael Miyamoto, MD, Cardiology • Zab Mohsenifar, MD, Internal Medicine & Pulmonary Diseases • John R. Morris, MD, Orthopedic Surgery • Mim Mulford, MD, Endocrinology • Marty Nettleman, MD, MS, Infectious Disease • Mark Scott Noah, MD, Internal Medicine • Omudhome Ogbru, PharmD, Pharmacy • Peter J. Panzarino, Jr. MD, Psychiatry & Behavioral Medicine • David Adam Perlstein, MD, FAAP, Pediatarics • Dennis Philips, MD, Pediatrics • Donald Pratt, MD, Internal Medicine • Stefan M. Pulst, MD, Neurology • J. Bradley Randleman, MD, Opthamology • Donald Rediker, MD, Cardiology • Alan Rockoff, MD, Dermatology • Emmanuel Saltiel, PharmD FASHP, FCCP, Pharmacy • Stephen J. Sanders, M.A., CCC-A, Audiology • Michael Santoro, MD, Gastroenterology • George Schiffman, MD, Pulmonary • Leslie J. Schoenfield, MD, PhD • Melvin Shiffman, MD, Cosmetic Surgery • Lawrence J. Schwartz, MD, Ophthalmology • Joseph Sciammarella, MD, FACP, FA.CEP, Emergency Medicine • John Sheppard, MD, Ophthalmology and Pharmacology • David Simon, MD, Internal Medicine • Robert Simon, MD, Neurology • Thomas P. Sokol, MD, FACS, FASCRS, Gastroenterology • Mark Sullivan, MD, Urology • Alan Szeftel, MD, Allergy and Immunology/Pulmonary Disease • Bruce Tammelin, MD, Pulmonary Disease • Suzanne Trupin MD, FACOG, Obstetrics and Gynecology • Michael Truong, MD, Endocrinology • Theodore Van Dam, MD, Internal Medicine • John Vierling, MD, Hepatology • Benjamin C. Wedro, MD, FAAEM, Emergency Medicine • Richard Weil, M.Ed., CDE, Exercise Physiology, Diabetes Educator • Maureen Welker, MSN, NPc, CCRN • Edward J. White, MD, General Surgery • Leslie Williams, EdD, Psychology • Joseph Y. Wu, MD, Internal Medicine & Geriatrics • Marilyn A.D. Yee, PharmD, Pharmacy • David Zachary, MD, Family Medicine Introduction lexicographer A writer of dictionaries, a harmless drudge. –Samuel Johnson, 1755 Like the previous editions, this edition has been conceived and developed by the staff of the health information Web site MedicineNet.com, part of the WebMD Health Network. One of the earliest health information sites on the Internet, MedicineNet.com has devoted a number of years to creating an online medical dictionary that now contains a wealth of contemporary medical terms and provides the broad foundation for this book. To create this new edition of Webster’s New World Medical Dictionary, we have reviewed every entry in the previous edition and have rewritten and strengthened many of those entries. In addition, we have selected new entries from our online medical dictionary for incorporation into this third edition. A unique feature of an online medical dictionary is that it can (and does) evolve rapidly to keep pace with the changes in medicine. We have taken advantage of this to update Webster’s New World Medical Dictionary. Like all of the medical content from MedicineNet.com, this dictionary was written and edited by physicians, to be used by anyone and everyone concerned about their own health or the health of those who matter to them. All the medical information found on MedicineNet.com has been developed by a network of physicians. The physicians select the topics and review and edit all written content. These physicians also make use of medical specialists and health writers throughout the US. The “About the Authors” pages provide abbreviated biographies of the editors and specialists who contributed content to the MedicineNet.com online dictionary and this book. Medicine is now advancing with remarkable rapidity on many fronts, and the language of medicine is also continually evolving with remarkable rapidity, commensurate with the changes. Today, there is constant need for communication between and among consumers and providers of health care. There is consequently a need for a high-quality, contemporary medical dictionary. In the current health care environment, patients and their physicians, nurses, and allied health professionals must be able to discuss the ever-changing aspects of health, disease, and biotechnology. An accurate understanding of medical terminology can assist communication and improve care for patients, and it can help to alleviate the concerns of family members and friends. The fact that the content of this dictionary is physician-produced by MedicineNet.com ensures an unusual degree of professional expertise, reliability, and perspective. As a bonus, this edition includes a companion Web site at www.medterms.com/wnw. There you will find content not found in the book such as PDF healthcare guides and audio podcasts. We hope that you will find Webster’s New World Medical Dictionary, Third Edition a valuable addition to your family or office library and a source of both information and illumination in any medical situation. Aa that spans the body cavity, just below the lungs. See also abdominal cavity. A In genetics, adenine, a member of the adeninethymine (A-T) base pair in DNA. abdominal aortic aneurysm See aneurysm, abdominal aortic. a- Prefix indicating the absence or depletion of something: for example, aphagia (not eating) or aphonia (voiceless). The related prefix an- is usually used before a vowel, as in anemia (without blood) and anoxia (without oxygen). abdominal cavity The cavity within the abdomen. This space between the abdominal wall and the spine contains a number of crucial organs, including the lower part of the esophagus, the stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, and bladder. See also abdomen. AA 1 Alcoholics Anonymous. 2 Amino acid. AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science, a professional organization that publishes the weekly journal Science. AAFP 1 American Association of Family Physicians, a professional organization for physicians who treat both children and adults. 2 American Academy of Family Physicians, a professional organization for physicians who treat both children and adults. AAO 1 American Association of Ophthalmology, a professional organization. 2 American Association of Orthodontists, a professional organization. 3 American Academy of Otolaryngology, a professional organization. AAOS American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, a professional organization. See also orthopaedics. AAP 1 American Academy of Pediatrics, a professional organization for physicians who treat infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. 2 American Academy of Pedodontics, a professional organization. 3 American Academy of Periodontology, a professional organization. 4 American Association of Pathologists, a professional organization. ab- Prefix indicating from, away from, or off, as in abduction (movement of a limb away from the midline of the body) and abnormal (away from normal). abdomen The part of the body that contains all the structures between the chest and the pelvis. The abdomen, or belly, is anatomically separated from the chest by the diaphragm, the powerful muscle abdomen, acute See acute abdomen. abdominal aorta The final section of the aorta, the largest artery in the body, which begins at the diaphragm as a continuation of the thoracic aorta and ends by splitting in two, to form the common iliac arteries. The abdominal aorta supplies oxygenated blood to all the abdominal and pelvic organs, as well as to the legs. See also aorta. abdominal guarding Tensing of the abdominal wall muscles to guard inflamed organs within the abdomen from the pain of pressure upon them. Abdominal guarding is detected when the abdomen is pressed and is an indication that inflammation of the inner abdominal (peritoneal) surface may be present due, for example, to appendicitis or diverticulitis. The tensed muscles of the abdominal wall automatically go into spasm to keep the tender underlying tissues from being irritated. abdominal hysterectomy See hysterectomy, abdominal. abdominal muscle One of a large group of muscles in the front of the abdomen that assists in maintaining regular breathing movements, supports the muscles of the spine while lifting, and keeps abdominal organs in place. Abdominal muscles are the target of many exercises, such as sit-ups. Abdominal muscles are informally known as the abs. abdominal pain Pain in the belly. Abdominal pain can be acute or chronic. It may reflect a major problem with one of the organs in the abdomen, such as appendicitis or a perforated intestine, or it may result from a fairly minor problem, such as excess buildup of intestinal gas. abducens nerve See abducent nerve. abducent nerve The sixth cranial nerve, which emerges from the skull to operate the lateral rectus muscle. This muscle draws the eye toward the side of the head. Paralysis of the abducent nerve causes inward turning of the eye. abduction abduction The movement of a limb away from the midline of the body. The opposite of abduction is adduction. abductor muscle See muscle, abductor. ABG Arterial blood gas, a sampling of the blood levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the arteries, as opposed to the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in veins. Typically, the acidity (pH) is also simultaneously measured. abiotrophy Loss of function, or degeneration for reasons unknown. ablate To remove, from a Latin word meaning “to carry away.” See ablation. ablation Removal or excision. Ablation is usually carried out surgically. For example, surgical removal of the thyroid gland (a total thyroidectomy) is ablation of the thyroid. abnormal Outside the expected norm, or uncharacteristic of a particular patient. ABO blood group The major human blood group system. The ABO type of a person depends on the presence or absence of two genes, A and B. These genes determine the configuration of the red blood cell surface. A person who has two A genes has red blood cells of type A. A person who has two B genes has red cells of type B. If the person has one A and one B gene, the red cells are type AB. If the person has neither the A nor the B gene, the red cells are type O. It is essential to match the ABO status of both donor and recipient in blood transfusions and organ transplants. abortifacient A medication or substance that causes pregnancy to end prematurely. abortion Premature exit of the products of the fetus, fetal membranes, and placenta from the uterus. Abortion can be a natural process, as in a miscarriage; an induced procedure, using medication or other substances that cause the body to expel the fetus; or a surgical procedure that removes the contents of the uterus. See also dilation and curettage. abortion, habitual The miscarriage of three or more consecutive pregnancies with no intervening pregnancies. Habitual abortion is a form of infertility. Also known as recurrent abortion and multiple abortion. abortion, multiple See abortion, habitual. abortion, recurrent See abortion, habitual. 2 abortion, spontaneous Miscarriage. abortive Tending to cut short the course of a disease, as in abortive polio (polio cut short). abortive polio A minor, abbreviated form of infection with the polio virus. Full recovery occurs in 24 to 72 hours, and the condition does not involve the nervous system or permanent disabilities. See also polio. ABP American Board of Pediatrics, a professional organization for physicians who treat infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. abrasion 1 A wearing away of the upper layer of skin as a result of applied friction force. See also scrape. 2 In dentistry, the wearing away of a tooth surface. abruptio placentae Premature separation (abruption) of the placenta from the wall of the uterus, often in association with high blood pressure or preeclampsia. Abruption is a potentially serious problem both for mother and fetus because the area where it occurs bleeds and the uterus begins to contract. Shock may result. See also placenta; preeclampsia. abs Slang term for the abdominal muscles. abscess A local accumulation of pus anywhere in the body. See also boil; pus. abscess, perianal An abscess next to the anus that causes tenderness, swelling, and pain on defecation. abscess, peritonsillar An abscess behind the tonsils that pushes one of the tonsils toward the uvula (the prominent soft tissue dangling from the back of the palate in the back of the mouth). A peritonsillar abscess is generally very painful and associated with difficulty opening the mouth. If a peritonsillar abscess is untreated, the infection can spread deep into the neck, causing airway obstruction and other life-threatening complications. abscess, skin A confined collection of pus in the skin. The common boil is a type of skin abscess. See also boil. abscission To remove tissue by cutting it away, as in surgery. See also resection. absence of the breast See amastia. absence of the nipple See athelia. 3 absinthe An emerald-green liqueur flavored with extracts of the wormwood plant, licorice, and aromatic flavorings in an alcohol base. Absinthe was manufactured, commercialized, and popularized in France in the late 1700s. It was an extremely addictive drink. Prolonged drinking of absinthe causes convulsions, blindness, hallucinations, and mental deterioration. Absinthe has been banned, but something of its taste is still available in such drinks as Greek ouzo and French pastis. Homemade absinthe may still be illicitly consumed in some areas. absolute CD4 count The number of “helper” Tlymphocytes in a cubic millimeter of blood. The absolute CD4 count is frequently used to monitor the extent of immune suppression in persons with HIV because with HIV, this number declines as the infection progresses. Also known as T4 count. absorption Uptake. For example, intestinal absorption is the uptake of food (or other substances) from the digestive tract. abstinence The voluntary self-denial of food, drink, or sex. Today, abstinence most commonly refers to denial of one’s sexual activity. abuse, child See child abuse. abuse, elder See elder abuse. a.c. Abbreviation of the Latin phrase ante cibum, meaning “before meals.” See also Appendix A, “Prescription Abbreviations.” AC joint See acromioclavicular joint. acanthosis nigricans A skin condition characterized by dark, thickened, velvety patches, especially in the folds of skin in the armpit, groin, and back of the neck. It can occur with endocrine diseases such as Cushing disease and diabetes mellitus, from tumors of the pituitary gland, underlying malignancies, certain drugs, and as a genetic disorder. It is most common in people who have insulin resistance—those whose body is not responding correctly to the insulin that they make in their pancreas. acapnia Lower than normal level of carbon dioxide in the blood. The opposite of acapnia is hypercapnia. accelerated phase of leukemia Chronic myelogenous leukemia that is progressing. In this phase, the number of immature, abnormal white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood is higher than in the chronic phase, but not as high as in the blast phase. ACE inhibitor accessory nerve The eleventh cranial nerve, which emerges from the skull and receives an additional (accessory) root from the upper part of the spinal cord. It supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. accessory neuropathy A disease of the accessory nerve, paralysis of which prevents rotation of the head away from one or both sides and causes the shoulder to droop. Damage can be confined to the accessory nerve, or it may also involve the ninth and tenth cranial nerves, which exit the skull through the same opening. accessory placenta See placenta, accessory. acclimatization to altitude The process of adapting to the decrease in oxygen concentration at a specific altitude. A number of changes must take place for the body to operate with decreased oxygen. These changes include increasing the depth of respiration; increasing the pressure in the pulmonary arteries, forcing blood into portions of the lung that are normally not used at sea level; manufacturing additional oxygen-carrying red blood cells; and manufacturing extra 2, 4-DPG, a substance that facilitates the release of oxygen from hemoglobin to the body tissues. Acclimatization generally takes 1 to 3 days and occurs after any significant altitude change above 1,220 meters (approximately 4,000 feet). Acclimatization is the body’s natural means of correcting altitude sickness and the rate of acclimatization depends on the altitude, rate of ascent, and individual susceptibility. accoucheur A male obstetrician. An accoucheuse is a woman obstetrician, or sometimes a midwife. ACE Angiotensin converting enzyme. ACE converts an angiotensin to its activated form, angiotensin II, enabling it to function. Angiotensin II constricts blood vessels and elevates blood pressure. ACE inhibitor A drug that inhibits ACE. Using an ACE inhibitor relaxes the arteries, not only lowering blood pressure but also improving the pumping efficiency of a failing heart and improving cardiac output in patients with heart failure. ACE inhibitors are therefore used for blood pressure control and congestive heart failure. ACE inhibitors include benazepril (brand name: Lotensin), captopril (brand name: Capoten), lisinopril (brand names: Zestril, Prinivil), quinapril (brand name: Accupril), and ramipril (brand name: Altace). Interestingly, ACE inhibitors were originally developed from the venom of a Brazilian viper snake. 

Websters new hacker dictionary

ix Introduction high-speed network built by the U.S. Defense Department as a computer communications experiment. By linking hundreds of universities, defense contractors, and research laboratories, ARPANET allowed researchers around the globe to exchange information with impressive speed.1 This capability of working collaboratively advanced the field of Information Technology and was the beginnings of what is now the Internet. In hackerdom history, the 1970s decade is affectionately known as the Elder Days. Back then, many of the hackers (as with the hippies of that era) had shoulder-length hair and wore blue jeans. And while the Beatles were making it to the top of music charts with their creative songs, hackers were busy with their high-tech inventions. At the start of this decade, only an estimated 100,000 computers were in use. By the mid-1970s, Bill Gates started the Microsoft Corporation, and Intel’s chairman, Gordon Moore, publicly revealed his infamous prediction that the number of transistors on a microchip would double every year and a half.This prediction has since become known as Moore’s Law. As for other creative outputs of the 1970s, one of the most frequently mentioned is a new programming language called “C.” As was UNIX in the operating system world, C was designed to be pleasant, nonconstraining, and flexible. Though for years operating systems had been written in tight assembler language to extract the highest efficiency from their host machines, hackers Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie were among the innovators who determined that both compiler technology and computer hardware had advanced to the point that an entire operating system could be written in C. By the late 1970s, the whole environment had successfully been ported to several machines of different types, and the ramifications were huge. If UNIX could present the same capabilities on computers of varying types, it could also act as a common software environment for them all. Users would not have to pay for new software designs every time a machine became obsolete. Rather, users could tote software “toolkits” between different machines. The primary advantage to both C and UNIX was that they were user-friendly.They were based on the KISS, or Keep It Simple, Stupid, model.Thus, a programmer could hold the complete logical structure of C in his or her head without too much hassle. No cumbersome manual was needed. The darker side of hacking also evolved during the Elder Days. Phreaker John Draper wound up in prison for using a cereal box whistle to get free long-distance telephone calls, and counterculture Yippie guru Abbie Hoffman started The Youth International Party Line newsletter, a vehicle for letting others know the trade secrets of getting free telephone calls. Hoffman’s publishing partner Al Bell amended the name of the newsletter to TAP, meaning Technical Assistance Program.The pair argued that phreaking was not a crime. It did not cause harm to anybody, for telephone calls emanated from an unlimited reservoir. The benefits to society and to cybercriminals continued with more advances in Information Technology in the 1980s.This decade became known as the Golden Age, in part because many of the high-tech entrepreneurs became some of the world’s richest people. For example, in 1982, a group of talented UNIX hackers from Stanford University and Berkeley founded Sun Microsystems Incorporated on the assumption that UNIX running on relatively low-cost hardware would prove to be a highly positive combination for a broad range of applications. These visionaries were right. Although still priced beyond most individuals’ budgets, the Sun Microsystem networks increasingly replaced older computer systems such as the VAX and other time-sharing systems in corporations and in universities across North America. Also, in 1984 a small group of scientists at Stanford University started Cisco Systems, Inc., a company that today remains committed to developing Internet Protocol (IP)–based networking technologies, particularly in the core areas of routing and switches. Introduction x The 1980s also had their darker moments. Clouds began to settle over the MIT Artificial Intelligence (AI) Lab. Not only was the PDP technology in the AI Lab aging, but the Lab itself split into factions by some initial attempts to commercialize Artificial Intelligence. In the end, some of the AI Lab’s most talented White Hats were attracted to high-salary jobs at commercial startup companies. In 1983, the movie War Games was produced to expose to the public the hidden faces of Black Hat hackers in general and the media-exposed faces of the 414-gang, a cracker gang, in particular. Ronald Mark Austin and his 414-gang from Milwaukee started cracking remote computers as early as 1980. In 1983, after they entered a New York cancer hospital’s computer system without authorization, the gang accidentally erased the contents of a certain hospital file as they were removing traces of their intrusion into the system. As a result of this exploit, that New York hospital and other industry and government agencies began to fear that confidential or top-secret files could be at risk of erasure or alteration. After the 414-gang became famous, hackers developed a penchant for putting numbers before or after their proper names, or for using a completely new moniker or “handle” (such as “Mafiaboy”). Besides movies about the dark side of hacking in the 1980s, the U.S. and the U.K. governments passed laws to curb cracking activities. For example, in Britain, the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act of 1981 was passed to help authorities convict criminals involved in these activities, and in the United States in 1986, Congress approved the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act to curb such criminal acts. Some of the world’s most famous crackers stole media headlines during 1988. It was then that Kevin Poulsen took over all the telephone lines going into Los Angeles radio station KIIS-FM, making sure that he would be the 102nd caller for a contest and the winner of a Porsche 944 S2. Also, on November 3, 1988, Robert Morris Jr. became known to the world when as a graduate student at Cornell University, he accidentally unleashed an Internet worm that he had developed. The worm, later known as “the Morris worm,” infected and subsequently crashed thousands of computers. Finally, in 1988, cracker Kevin Mitnick secretly monitored the email of both MCI and DEC security officials. For these exploits, he was convicted of causing damage to computers and of software theft and was sentenced to one year in prison—a cracking-followed-by-prison story for Mitnick that was to repeat over the next few years. The years from 1990 through 2000 are known as the Great Hacker Wars and Hacker Activism Era because during this time, cyberwars became a media story spinner. For example, the early 1990s brought in the “Hacker War” between two hacker clubhouses in the United States—the Legion of Doom (LoD) and the Masters of Deception (MoD). LoD was founded by Lex Luthor in 1984; MoD was founded by Phiber Optik. Named after a Saturday morning cartoon, LoD was known for attracting the best hackers in existence until one of the club’s brightest members, Phiber Optik (a.k.a. Mark Abene) feuded with Legion of Doomer Erik Bloodaxe. After the battle, Phiber Optik was removed from the club. He and his talented clan then formed their own rival club, MoD. LoD and MoD engaged in online warfare for almost two years. They jammed telephone lines, monitored telephone lines and telephone calls, and trespassed into each others’ computers. Then the U.S. federal agents moved in. Phiber Optik got a one-year jail sentence for his exploits. After his release from federal prison, hundreds of individuals attended a “welcome home” party in his honor at an elite Manhattan club, and a popular magazine labeled Phiber Optik “one of the city’s 100 smartest people.”2 Political activism—such as that seen on U.S. big-city streets pushing for civil rights for minorities and equal rights for women during the 1960s and 1970s—moved to the computer screen in the 1990s. xi Introduction For example, in 1994 and 1995, White Hat hacktivists—the combining of hacking and activism— squashed the Clipper proposal, one that would have put strong encryption (the process of scrambling data into something that is seemingly unintelligible) under United States government control. By 1995, many “golden” achievements were under way. In 1995, the CyberAngels, the world’s oldest and largest online safety organization, was founded. Its mission was and continues to be the tracking of cyberstalkers, cyberharassers, and cyberpornographers. Also, the Apache Software Foundation, a nonprofit corporation, evolved after the Apache Group convened in 1995. The Apache Software Foundation eventually developed the now-popular Apache HTTP Server, which runs on virtually all major operating systems. Also in 1995, the SATAN (Security Administrator Tool for Analyzing Networks) was released on the Internet by Dan Farmer and Wietse Venema, an action that caused a major uproar about security auditing tools being made public. In this same year, Sun Microsystems launched the popular programming language Java, created by James Gosling, and the first online bookstore, Amazon.com, was launched by Jeffrey Bezos.Tatu Ylonen released the first SSH (Secure SHell) login program, a protocol for secure remote logins and other secure network services over a network deemed to be nonsecure. Finally, in 1995, the Microsoft Corporation released Windows 95. It sold more than a million copies in fewer than five days. By the year 2000, society was becoming more fearful of the dark side of hacking. For example, in February 2000, John Serabian, the CIA’s information issue manager, said in written testimony to the United States Joint Economic Committee that the CIA was detecting with increasing frequency the appearance of government-sponsored cyberwarfare programs in other countries. Moreover, on May 23, 2000, Dr. Dorothy Denning, a cybercrime expert who at the time was at Georgetown University, gave testimony before the United States Special Oversight Panel on Terrorism. She said that cyberspace was constantly under assault, making it a fertile place for cyber attacks against targeted individuals, companies, and governments—a point repeated often by White Hat hackers over the past 20 years. She warned that unless critical computer systems were secured, conducting a computer operation that physically harms individuals or societies may become as easy in the not-too-distant-future as penetrating a Website is today. During 2000, the high-profile case of a Canadian cracker with the moniker Mafiaboy (his identity was not disclosed because he was only 15 years old at the time) raised concerns in North America and elsewhere about Internet security following a series of Denial of Service (DoS) attacks on several highprofile Websites, including Amazon.com, eBay, and Yahoo!. On January 18, 2001, Mafiaboy pleaded guilty to charges that he cracked into Internet servers and used them as starting points for launching DoS attacks. In September 2001, he was sentenced to eight months in a detention center for minors and was fined $250 Canadian. The year 2001 and beyond has become known as an era marked by fears of an Apocalypse— brought about by terrorists in the actual world in combination with cyberterrorists in cyberspace. In just five years, citizens at home and at work have become bombarded by cyber worms and cyber viruses that have cute names such as the Love Bug, Melissa, and Slammer but that have caused billions of dollars in lost productivity and damage to computer networks worldwide. Even worse, many experts fear that the evolution of devastating viruses and worms is occurring at such a rapid rate that the potential for a cyber Apocalypse could occur any time now. In an attempt to halt cybercriminals, the U.S. government and other governments around the globe have passed legislation that is tougher and more controversial than ever before. For example, in the spring Introduction xii of 2002, U.S. Representatives Saxby Chambliss, R-GA, and Jane Harman, D-CA, introduced the Homeland Security Information Sharing Act to provide for the sharing of security information by U.S. Federal intelligence and law enforcement parties with state and local law enforcement agents.This Act, requiring the President to direct coordination among the various intelligence agencies, was sent to the Senate Committee on Intelligence and to the Committee on the Judiciary on April 25, 2002. On May 6, 2002, it was sent to the Subcommittee on Crime,Terrorism, and Homeland Security, and on June 13, 2002, it was reported with an amendment by the House Judiciary. It lapsed without passage. Moreover, on July 10 and 11, 2002, a United States Bill on Homeland Security was introduced by Representative Richard Armey, R-TX, to the Standing Committees in the House. It was heavily amended by the Committee on Homeland Security on July 24, 2002, and was passed by the House on July 26, 2002.The bill was received in the Senate on November 19, 2002 and passed by the Senate on November 25, 2002. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 was signed by the President of the United States as Public Law 107-296. It was meant to establish the Department of Homeland Security, and Section 225 was known as the Cyber Security Enhancement Act of 2002. On January 24, 2003, President George W. Bush swore in Tom Ridge as the first Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security, and one month later, a storm was brewing over the proposed Domestic Security Enhancement Act of 2003, also known as Patriot Act II.William Safire, a journalist with The New York Times, described the first draft of the Patriot II’s powers by suggesting that the U.S. President was exercising dictatorial control. Then, on February 7, 2003, the storm intensified when the Center for Public Integrity, a public-interest think-tank in Washington, D.C., disclosed the entire content of the Act. The classified document allegedly had been given to the Center by someone in the federal government.3 The Act ultimately did not become law. Governments and legal analysts were not the only ones motivated by cyber fears in the early 2000s. In August 2003, three crippling worms and viruses caused considerable cyber damage and increased the stress levels of business leaders and citizens alike about a possible “cyber Apocalypse.”The Blaster worm surfaced on August 11, 2003, exploiting security holes found in Microsoft Windows XP. Only a few days later, on August 18, the Welchia worm appeared on the scene, targeting active computers. It went to Microsoft’s Website, downloaded a program that fixes the Windows holes (known as a “do-gooder”), and then deleted itself.The most damaging of the three cyber pests was the email-borne SoBigF virus, the fifth variant of a “bug” that initially invaded computers in January 2003 and resurfaced with a vengeance also on August 18, 2003.The damages for lost production and economic losses caused by these worms and viruses were reportedly in excess of $2 billion for just an eight-day period. About this time, John McAfee, the developer of the McAfee anti-virus software company, claimed that there were more than 58,000 virus threats, and the anti-virus software company Symantec further estimated that 10 to 15 new viruses are discovered daily. By November 5, 2003, the media reported that a cracker had broken into one of the computers on which the sources of the Linux operating systems are stored and from which they are distributed worldwide. One day later, Microsoft Corporation took the unusual step of creating a $5 million fund to track down crackers targeting Microsoft’s Windows operating systems. That fund included a $500,000 reward for information that would lead to an arrest of the crackers who designed and unleashed the Blaster and SoBigF. This Wild West–like bounty underscored the perceived threat posed xiii Introduction by viruses and worms in an interlinked world, as well as the problems associated with finding their creators. However, some cynical security critics said that the reward had more to do with Microsoft’s public relations than with crime and punishment. By the end of 2003, the Computer Security Institute/FBI survey on computer crime, enlisting the responses of 530 computer security professionals in U.S. corporations, universities, government agencies, and financial and medical institutions, revealed that more than half of the respondents said that their organizations had experienced some kind of unauthorized computer use or intrusion during the previous 12 months. An overwhelming 99 percent of the companies whose security practitioners responded to the survey thought that they had adequate protection against cyber intruders because their systems had anti-virus software, firewalls, access controls, and other security measures. As in previous years, theft of proprietary information was reported to have caused the greatest financial losses.4 Also at the end of 2003, a survey released by Deloitte & Touche LLP indicated that chief operating officers (COOs) of companies around the world were more nervous about terrorist attacks adversely impacting on business than were their American peers.The economist Carl Steidtmann, for example, suggested that U.S. executives might be less concerned and more complacent about terrorist and cyberterrorist attacks because they felt that their country had taken more overt steps to combat terrorism, such as introducing the Homeland Security Act of 2002. Besides intrusions and terrorism, spam was a major topic for action in November 2003.The United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC) had earlier set up a national spam database and encouraged people to forward to them all the email spam they received.The FTC noted that in 2002, informants had reported more than 17 million complaints about spam messages to the federal agents for investigation, and the FTC said that it received nearly 110,000 complaints daily. To control spam, on November 25, 2003, the United States Senate passed the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, also known as the Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003. It was to regulate interstate commerce in the United States by imposing limitations and penalties on the distributors of spam (that is, the transmission of unsolicited email through the Internet). Penalties included fines as high as $1 million and imprisonment for not more than five years for those found guilty of infringing the Act.The Act took effect on January 1, 2004. Moreover, on April 8, 2005, a landmark legal case concluded that involved spammer Jeremy Jaynes of Raleigh, North Carolina. This spammer—who went by the name “Gaven Stubberfield” and was described by prosecutors as being among the top 10 spammers in the world—was sentenced to nine years in U.S. prison.This case is considered to be important because it was the United States’ first successful felony prosecution for transmitting spam over the Internet.A Virginia jury sentenced Jaynes for transmitting 10 million emails a day using 16 high-speed lines. Jaynes allegedly earned as much as $750,000 a month on this spamming operation. The sentence has been postponed while the case is being appealed.5 In closing, little doubt exists that the cyber challenges facing governments, industry, universities, medical institutions, and individuals are enormous. Because cybercrime appears in many guises, is multifaceted, and involves jurisdictions around the world, there is no single solution to the problem.This book was written to detail the many cyber challenges that security professionals, businesses, governments, individuals, and legal experts face and to present some useful answers for staying a few steps ahead of the “dark side”—those in the cracking and cyberterrorist communities. Introduction xiv Chronology of Selected Hacker-Related Events Prehistory (1800s–1969) 1815–mid-1800s Ada Byron, the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, was born in 1815. During a dinner party at Mary Somerville’s home in 1834, Ada was introduced to a researcher named Babbage, who spoke of a “new calculating machine.” By 1841, he reported on its development at a seminar in Italy. Ada and Babbage continued developing this concept, and by 1843,Ada published her own paper predicting that a machine could be developed to not only compose complex music and produce graphics but also be used for a variety of scientific and practical uses. Ada also suggested that Babbage should write a plan for how the Analytical Engine might calculate Bernoulli numbers.This plan was completed and is now recognized as the initial “computer program.” In modern days, the popular programming language ADA was named in Ada Byron’s honor. 1920s–1950s Kay McNulty Mauchly Antonelli, born in 1921, was recruited by the U.S. army in the summer of 1942 to calculate by hand the firing trajectories of artillery. She was sort of a “human computer.” Later, Kay met John Mauchly, a professor and co-inventor with Presper Eckert of the first electronic computer in (known as the ENIAC or Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator) in 1935. In 1948, Kay married John, and two years later they, along with Presper Eckert, started their own company. The three-person team developed a new, faster computer called the Univac or Universal Automatic Computer. One of its assets was its use of magnetic tape storage to replace awkward and clumsy punched data cards and printers. At this time, the computer industry was only four years old. In the 1940s and 1950s, computer were made with 10,000 vacuum tubes and occupied more than 93 square meters of space, about the size of a spacious 3-bedroom apartment.There was a limit to how big computers could be because they could overheat and explode. Major improvements came in computer hardware technology with the development of transistors in 1947 and 1948 that replaced the much larger and power-hungry vacuum tubes. Computers developed even more with the development of integrated circuits in 1958 and 1959—putting initially only a few transistors on one chip. 1960s During the 1960s, the infamous MIT computer geeks did their hacking exploits. Computers looked quite different back then.They were not small or portable, as they are today. Instead, they were huge, and capable of overheating if they were not stored in temperature-controlled spaces.They were known as the PDP series, and their processing time was considerably slower than that of today.The computer geeks created what they called “hacks” or “programming shortcuts” to enable them to complete their computing tasks more quickly. Many times, these shortcuts were more elegant than the original program.These creative individuals became known (in a positive sense) as “hackers.” Some of these men became the center of MIT’s Artificial Intelligence (AI) Lab. Since the 1960s, the number of transistors per unit area has been doubling every one and a half years, thus increasing computing power tremendously.This amazing progression of circuit fabrication is called Moore’s Law and has remained valid since then.