A DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

PREFACE My thanks are due to innumerable people who have helped me in many different ways during eighteen months of intensive work, to handle a vast amount of material in a short space of time. First, I am tremendously grateful for the opportunities afforded by the University of Bristol library and, latterly by the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and the library of the Tavistock Clinic, London. In particular I should like to thank the staff of the Inter-Library Loans Service at Bristol University, who have tracked down obscure items for me from libraries all over Britain. Without them it would have been impossible to obtain essential resources. My second debt is to all those experts I have consulted, both formally and informally, regarding different subject areas. Especially I would like to thank Dr Christopher Dare, Consultant Psychiatrist, the Bethlem Hospital and the Maudsley Hospital, London, who gave extensive advice on the psychoanalytic entries; Miss Sally Box, Principal Social Worker in the Adolescent Department of the Tavistock Clinic, London, who advised on the Kleinian entries; Dr Glin Bennet, Consultant Senior Lecturer in the Department of Mental Health, University of Bristol, who advised on the terms relating to Jungian psychotherapy; Dr Dougal McKay, Director of Psychological Services to the Bristol & Western Health Authority, who advised on behaviour therapy, the cognitive therapies and social learning approaches; Dr Andrew Treacher, Lecturer in Mental Health at the University of Bristol, who advised on personal construct theory, social influence theory, outcome studies and many of the entries relating to general psychology; and Mr Philip Kingston, Lecturer in the Department of Applied Social Studies, University of Bristol, who advised on the entries relating to family, marital and systems therapy. Two colleagues have made particular contributions to the specialist areas of psychological tests and philosophical concepts. Mr Peter Gardner, Principal Psychologist for the County of Avon, has contributed the entry under personality tests and assessment and many of the entries on psychological tests; and Mr David Watson, Lecturer in the Department of Social Administration, University of Bristol, has contributed much of the opening descriptions of the following entries: epistemology, causality, phenomenology, Cartesian and the theory of types. I am particularly grateful to Dr R.D. Hinshelwood for his comments on the manuscript as a whole and for his expert help with the psychoanalytic entries, to Dr Malcolm Pines for his help with entries relating to group psychotherapy and to Mr Andrew Samuels for his assistance with entries relating to analytical psychology. Any errors that remain in the text are of course my own. I would also like to thank all the many friends and colleagues who have PREFACE loaned, advised about or given me books and articles from their own libraries. Next, I would like to thank Mrs Sheila Salisbury for typing and word-processing the manuscript with exceptional care and for taking such an interest in it, Philippa Brewster, editor at Routledge & Kegan Paul, for keeping me sane in the early days with regular doses of encouragement, and Elizabeth Taylor for her detailed work on the typescript. And finally, all my friends whom I mainly deserted for a whole year and especially Oi, who put up with it all and only complained when every room in the house was covered with papers and books. Thispageintentionally leftblank This page intentionally left blank ABRAHAM, KARL A A-historical Approaches to psychotherapy which de-emphasise the use of the patient''s history in either diagnosis or treatment or both. Most therapies which are described as a-historical use the term relatively, since some form of history taking is often found helpful even though perhaps not at the beginning of contact with the patient. The term is used to distinguish those psychotherapies (psychoanalysis and the depth psychologies) which connect the patient''s psychopathology with the past and especially with his early experiences of infancy; and those therapies which focus on the presenting problem (behaviour therapy) and on the here and now events of current interaction with the therapist and with his significant others. The distinction is quite hard to maintain since analysts would argue that the analysis of the transftrence and the focus on the patient''s free associations are both here and now emphases; and Jungians would want to claim a future-directed, teleological aspect to their therapy which supersedes in importance the historical exploration. However, these cannot be described as a-historical in the same way since the purpose of both is to link the present with the patient''s past and to enable him to gain insight into the way he is impeded by its influence. Systemic therapies such as family therapy tend to be a-historical as they afford opportunities for exploring the ''horizontal'' network of current relationships in vivo which tends to reduce the need to examine ''vertical'' networks of past relationships. This would not, however, be true of transgenerational family therapy or psychoanalyticfomily therapy. Some forms of strategic therapy, brief therapy and crisis intervention are almost entirely ahistorical, the best example being brief symptom-focused therapy. Cooklin (1982) discusses some of the issues involved in comparing historical with a-historical approaches to the treatment of systems. Any discussion of the two is inevitably value-laden, as those who advocate an a-historical approach are often concerned to move away from what they perceive as the deterministic framework of history, whilst those who underline the need for using the patient''s historical context are anxious to establish the logical and scientific status of a deductively derived theory of change. COOKLIN, A. (1982) Change in ''here and now'' systems vs systems over time (in Bentovim, A., Gorell-Barnes, G. and Cookling, A. (eds), Family Therapy: Complementary Frameworks of Theory and Practice, Academic Press, London.) See also Behavioural analysis, Phenotype. A-symptomatic Having no symptoms. Abraham, Karl (1877-1925) One of Freud''s earliest and most senior collaborators, Abraham holds a foremost place in the history ofpsychoanalysis. Born in Bremen of Jewish parents, he studied medicine at Freiburg and later joined the Vienna Psychoanalytic Circle along with lung, Adler, Ferenczi and others. In 1910, he founded the Berlin Institute which became one of the foremost psychoanalytic training institutes. Abraham was one of Freud''s most stalwart supporters and the two men engaged in regular correspondence over theoretical and technical issues. He took an active part in trying to keep Freud''s circle free of ''dissent'', although Freud expressed concern at Abraham''s zeal, pointing out that it was easier for Abraham than for Jung, ''because of racial kinship'', to remain consistent in his acceptance of Freud''s work. Abraham made important contributions to the theory of psycho-sexual development, subdividing the oral stage into oral-dependent and oralaggressive; and the anal stage into analeliminative and anal-retentive. He had a considerable influence on many psychoanalysts whom he analysed himself at the Berlin Institute, including Helene Deutsch, Karen Homey and Melanie Klein. He died in 1 ABREACTION Berlin of a lung complaint in 1925, leaving his major works to be collected together in 1948 and published as ''Selected papers on psychoanalysis''. His daughter, Hilde, became a wellknown analyst in London. Abreaction The release of emotional energy which occurs either spontaneously or during the course of psychotherapy and which produces catharsis. Spontaneous abreaction usually occurs soon after a traumatic event and this has the effect of mobilising the individual''s coping behaviour and hastening his re-adaptation to the new situation. If spontaneous abreaction does not occur, the affect attached to the memory of the loss is repressed and is likely to produce symptoms of depression, withdrawal or other neurotic presentations. The term was introduced by Breuer and Freud (1893) to describe the release of emotion attached to a previously repressed experience, and abreaction is still considered to be an important element in the therapeutic process not only within psychoanalytic therapies but also among many forms of group p~ychotherapy, encounter groups, Gestalt therapy and those therapies that make use of p~chodrama and re-enactment to help the patient integrate repressed material. Not all abreaction leads to catharsis however, and sometimes the patient may be left worse off than before following an abreaction. The therapeutic inducement of abreaction needs to take place in a protected setting with the safeguards that the therapeutic relationships can afford. Barber (1969) has discussed its use in hypnosis, and Wolpe (1973), in behaviour therapy. Wolpe suggests that the therapeutic effects obtained during abreaction might be a special case of the non-specificfoaors that operate in a proportion of cases receiving any form of psychotherapy. BARBER, T. X. (1969), Hypnosis: A Scientific Approach (Van Nostrand, Reinhold & Company, New York). BREUER, J. and FREUD, S. (1893), ''On the psychical mechanism of hysterical phenomena: preliminary communication'' (in 2 Studies on Hysteria, Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works ofSigmund Freud, vol. 2, Hogarth Press, London). JUNG, C. G. (1928), ''The therapeutic value of abreaction'' (Collected Works, vol. 16, Roudedge & Kegan Paul, London). WOLPE, J. (1973), The Practice of Behaviour Therapy (Pergamon Press, New York). See also Trauma. Absent member manoeuvre A form of resistance identified by Sonne et al. (1962) in the context offomily therapy. A key member of the family absents himself either from the first session so that treatment cannot begin or during a critical phase later on in the treatment process. Family therapists vary in their response. Some refuse to see the family if the key member is absent; others prefer to work with the resistance, using it as a means of understanding the roles taken by individuals and the way in which coalitions and alliances are formed. SONNE, J. et al. (1962), ''The absent member manoeuvres as a resistance in family therapy of schizophrenia'' (Family Process, vol. 1, pp. 44- 672). See also Folie a deux. Acceptance A quality believed to be necessary for a therapist to display in relation to the client, in order to promote effective psychotherapy. Van der Veen (1970) defines acceptance as ''valuing or prizing all aspects of the client including the parts that are hateful to himself or appear wrong in the eyes of society''. Used interchangeably with unconditional positive regard by client-centred therapists, the concept of acceptance enables the therapist to distinguish between the client''s self and his behaviour - a distinction which other schools of therapy, for example behaviour therapy, would find difficult to sustain. Acceptance involves the recognition by the therapist of the client''s worth without necessarily implying either approval of his behaviour, or an emotional attachment on the part of the therapist. ACTING OUT DER VEEN, F. (1970), ''Client perception of therapist conditions as a factor in psychotherapy'' (in Hart,]. T. and Tomlinson, T. M. (eds), New Dimensions in Client Centred Therapy, Houghton Mifflin, Boston). VA~ See also Accommodation, Core conditions, Empathy, Joining, Non-specific foctors, Relationship factors. Accommodation Term used to describe the need for the therapist to adapt and harmonise his style and techniques with each particular family or client. The term is used mainly in the context of fomi(y therapy but the process is relevant to all modalities and is fundamental to the creation of a therapeutic alliance. The therapist responds to this need by developing joining techniques and creating the core conditions of the treatment process. Both these enable him to move from a position of accommodation to a position of challenge, promoting change, insight and the acquisition of new skills for problem solving interventions. In the context of family therapy, accommodation lays the groundwork and makes possible the restructuring interventions by which the family system begins to change. MINUCHIN, S. (1974), Families and Famiry Therapy (Tavistock, London). Accreditation See Regulation (ofpsychotherapists). Ackerman, Nathan Ward (1908-1971) Pioneer offamiry therapy, Ackerman was born into aJewish family in Bessarabia. He was one of five children that survived infancy, the family emigrating to the United States in 1912. He studied medicine at Columbia University, New York, and later psychiatry. Between 1937 and 1942 he was a candidate at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute, working simultaneously as a psychiatrist for the Jewish Board of Guardians. In 1937 he married Gwendolyn Hill and they had two daughters. He became a member of the American Psychoanalytic Association in 1943, but in 1955 he helped found the American Academy of Psychoanalysis which became a principal alternative organisation for those who refused to confine psychoana(ysis to being a medical speciality. His approach to psychoanalysis was unorthodox and creative and although he retained his links with, and use of, psychoanalytic theory throughout his life, his appreciation of the wider social and cultural determinants of psychological disturbance began to lead him towards the treatment of the family as a group. In 1960 he founded the Family Institute, New York, and from then on he specialised in the practice and teaching of family therapy. In the same year, he co-founded, with Don Jackson, the journal Famiry Process, which remains the foremost family therapy journal in the world. He left behind a huge legacy of books and articles and also film material of his clinical work. His best-known books are The Psychodynamics ofFamiry Life (1958) and Treating the Troubled Famiry (1966). Acting in Term sometimes used as a contrast to acting out to denote an intermediate form of expression, which lies midway between acting out on the one hand and verbalisation on the other. Body postures, facial expressions and the patient''s whole repertoire of non-verbal communication, adopted during the therapeutic session, is thus described as acting in. The term is also used to describe any behaviour that occurs within the therapeutic session (as a substitute for the work of verbalising repressed material), as contrasted with that which occurs outside the session. DEUTSCH, F. (1947), ''Analysis of postural Quarterry, vol. 16, behaviour'' (P~ychoanarytic pp. 195-213). MAHL, G. F. (1967), ''Some clinical observations on non-verbal behaviour in interviews'' (J. ot'' Nervous and Mental Diseases, vol. 144, pp. 492-505). Acting out The making conscious of unconscious impulses and conflicts through action. Freud 3 

Dirty portuguese

Its been ages Tem muito tempo Long time no see. Tem uma cara que nóo te vejo. Its been a while since Ive seen you. Tem uma pỏ de tempo que nóo te vejo. Whereve you been?! Cadờ vocờ?! (BA) Literally, Where are you? Youve been M.I.A.! Vocờ sumiu! Literally, You disappeared. Youve grown a goatee since I last saw you. Na ỳltima vez que eu te vi, vocờ nóo tinha essa barbicha. Sorry Desculpa You never know who youre gonna offend, so its always nice to be prepared with these save-your-ass favorites. Pardon. Perdóo. A thousand apologies. Mil desculpas. Im really sorry. (like when youre actually sympathetic to the person) Sinto muito. Excuse me. Com licenỗa. Scuse me. Licenỗa. Exsqueeze me. Licenỗa aớ. (BA) Sorry about that, brah. Desculpa aớ, meu broder. Excuse my shitty accent. Me desculpe pelo meu sotaque carregado. My bad. Foi mal. Woopsy daisy. Foi mal por essa cagada. Literally, It was bad, this poop. That was all my fault. A culpa foi toda minha. I screwed up. Vacilei. I fucked up. Dei mole. Please and thank you Por favor e obrigado Americans have a bad rep for being arrogant and rude. Shocking, huh? If you dont wanna come off as a complete prick, memorize some of these: Please. Por favor. Pleez. Na manha. (BA) Pretty pleez. Por favorzinho. (RJ) | Na moral. (BA) Do me a favor. Me faz um favor. (RJ) | Faỗa o favor. (SP) Thank you. Obrigado/a. Thanks. Brigado/a. Thanks a bundle. Muito obrigado/a. Thanks so much for doing me that favor. Muito agradecido pelo favor que vocờ fez. Thanks a lot. Valeu. I owe you one. Quando vocờ casar a/o mulher/marido ộ toda/o sua/seu. Literally, When youre married, Ill never try to go after your wife/ husband. Youre welcome. De nada. No problem. ẫ nenhuma. (BA) Dont be ridiculous. Imagina. Introducing yourself Se apresentando Hi, my name is Chad. Oi meu nome ộ Chad. Im American. Sou americano. Ive just arrived in town. Cheguei agora. Wheres the nearest beach? Onde fica a praia mais prúxima? I heard that Copacabana has a tsunami of asses. Ouvớ dizer que Copacabana tem um tsunami de bundas. Im Greta. Meu nome ộ Greta. Im from Germany. Sou da Alemanha. Do you know a good youth hostel nearby? Vocờ sabe onde tem um albergue perto daqui? Is it OK if I go topless here? Posso fazer topless aqui? FYI: Local Brazilian women do not go topless and you shouldnt either. On the other hand, a little ass-cheek never hurt anyone. Nice to meet you Prazer em conhecer vocờ Pleasure. Prazer. Glad to meet you. Muito prazer. It was a pleasure. Foi um prazer. The pleasure is mine. O prazer ộ todo meu. Likewise. Igualmente. What do you do to kill time? O que vocờ faz pra matar o tempo? What do you do with your free time? O que vocờ faz no seu tempo livre? What do you do? O que vocờ faz da vida? Where do you live? Onde vocờ mora? KISSES BEIJOS People get friendly when it comes to greetings. Its a little peck on each cheek if youre friends, and if its between two guys, usually a casual hand bump or maybe a manly hug. Also, and this is mostly on the phone, you send a kiss before you hang up. Bye girl, kiss. Tchau menina, beijo. Kiss. Beijo. Another. Outro. This can be a response to beijo. Send a kiss to your mom. Manda um beijo pra sua móe. Big kiss. Beijóo. Little kiss. Beijinho. Smooches. Beijocas. Do you live alone? Vocờ mora sozinho/a? Can I use your bathroom? Posso usar seu banheiro? Have you ever had an STD? Vocờ jỏ teve algum tipo de DST? DST is short for Doenỗa Sexualmente Transmissớvel. Can you help me find a hot girlfriend? Vocờ pode me ajudar a arrumar uma namorada gostosa? Gotta light? Vocờ tem isqueiro? Wheres the best pick-up soccer game around here? Onde posso bater uma pelada? Good-bye Adeus Bye. Tchau. Bye-bye. Tchauzinho. See ya. Atộ. Later. Atộ jỏ. See you next time. Atộ a prúxima. See you later. Atộ mais. See you soon. Atộ logo. See you whenever. Atộ qualquer hora. Im going Jỏ vou Cuz sometimes youve just gotta make like a tree and leave. Im gone. Fui. Im out. Vou abrir o gỏs. (BA) Its about friggin time. Jỏ vai tarde. Im gonna split like a banana. Vou meter o pộ. (RJ) I gotta run. Vou partir a mil. Im gonna leave. Vou embora. Its time to go. Tỏ na hora. Im Tụ outta here. caindo fora. leaving. saindo. bouncing. vazando. outtie. indo. Stop by anytime. Apareỗa. Stop by more often. Apareỗa mais. Come back soon. Volte logo. 

Discourse analysis for language teachers

1 What is discourse analysis? way that we talk of a ''transaction'' in a shop between a shopkeeper and a customer, which will similarly be a completed whole, with a recognisable start and finish. However, framing move and transaction are only labels to attach to certain structural features, and the analogy with their nonspecialist meanings should not be taken too far. This classroom extract is very structured and formal, but transactions with framing moves of this kind are common in a number of other settings too: telephone calls are perhaps the most obvious, especially when we wish to close the call once the necessary business is done; a job interview is another situation where various phases of the interview are likely to be marked by the chairperson or main interviewer saying things like ''right'', ''well now'' or ''okay'', rather in the way the teacher does. Notice, too, that there is a fairly limited number of words available in English for framing transactions (e.g. right, okay, so, etc.), and notice how some people habitually use the same ones. Reader activity 3 1. 2. 3. d How many other situations can you think of where framing moves are commonly used to divide up the discourse, apart from classrooms, telephone calls and job interviews? Complete the list of what you think the most common framing words or phrases are in English and make a list of framing words in any other language you know. Do framing words translate directly from language to language? What is your favourite framing word or phrase when you are teaching, or when you talk on the phone? If we return to our piece of classroom data, the next problem is: does the question-answer sequence between the teacher and pupils have any internal strumre, or is it just a string of language forms to which we can give individual function or speech-act labels? Sinclair and Coulthard show clearly that it does have a structure. Looking at the extract, we can see a pattern: (1)the teacher asks something (''What''s that?''), (2) a pupil answers (''An axe'') and (3)the teacher acknowledges the answer and comments on it (''It''s an axe, yes''). The pattern of (I), (2) and (3) is then repeated. So we could label the pattern in the following way: , 1. Ask T 2. Answer P 3. Comment T 1 .S Spoken discourse: models of analysis This gives us then a regular sequence of TPT-TPT-TPT-TPT, etc. So we can now return to our extract and begin to mark off the boundaries that create this pattern: T: Now then . . .I''ve got some t h i n g s . h too. Hands up. What''s that, what is it? I P: Saw. I T: It''s a saw, yes this is a saw. N What do with a saw? 1 P: Cut wood. I T: Yes. You''re shouting out though. I! QUltacd~ do with a saw? Marvelette. I P: Cut wood. I T: We cut wood. 11 And, erm, what do we do with etc. . .. We can now isolate a typical segment between double slashes (11)and use.it as a bask unit in our description: (1.8) T: /I What do we do with a saw? Marvelette. I P: Cut wood. I T: We cut wood. 11 '' Sinclair and Coulthard call this unit an exchange. This particular exchange consists of a question, an answer and a comment, and so it is a three-part exchange. Each of the parts are giveri the name move by Sinclair and Coulthard. Here are some other examples of exchanges, each with three moves: (1-9) A: What time is it? B: Six thirty. A: Thanks. A: Tim''s coming tomorrow. B: Oh yeah. A: Yes. A: Here, hold this. B: (takes the box) A: Thanks. Each of these exchanges consists of three moves, but it is only in (1)that the first move (''What time is it?'') seems to be functioning as a question. The first move in (2) is heard as giving information, and the first move in (3)as a command. Equally, the second moves seem to have the function, respectively, of (1)an answer, (2) an acknowledgement and (3)a non-verbal response (taking the box). The third moves are in all three exchanges functioning as feedback on the second move: (1) to be polite and say thanks, (2) to confirm the information and (3)ro say thanks again. In order to capture the similarity of the pattern in each case, Sinclair and Coulthard 1 What is discourse analysis? (1975: M 7 ) call the first move in each exchange an opening move, the second an answering moue and the third a follow-up moue. Sinclair and Brazil (1982: 49) prefer to talk of initiation, response and follow-up. It does not particularly matter for our purposes which set of labels we use, but for consistency, in this book the three moves will be called initiation, response and follow-up. We can now label our example exchanges using these terms: Move Exchange 1 Exchange 2 Exchange 3 A: What time is it? B: Six-thirty. A: Thanks. A: Tim''s coming tomorrow. B: Oh yeah. A: Yes. A: Here, hold this. B: (takes the box) A: Thanks. - - Initiation Response Follow-up In these exchanges we can observe the importance of each move in the overall functional unit. Every exchange has to be initiated, whether with a statement, a question or a command; equally naturally, someone responds, whether in words or action. The status of the follow-up move is slightly different: in the classroom it fulfils the vital role. of telling the pupils whether they have done what the teacher wanted them to; in other situations it may be an act of politeness, and the follow-up elements might even be extended further, as in this Spanish example: (1.12) A: Oiga, pot favor, ~ q uhora i es? B: Las cinco y media. A: Gracias. B: De nada. Here A asks B the time, B replies (''half past five''), A thanks B (''gracias''), and then B says ''de nada'' (''not at all''). Many English speakers would feel that such a lengthy ritual was unnecessary for such a minor favour and would omit the fourth part, reserving phrases such as ''not at all'' for occasions where it is felt a great service has been done, for example where someone has been helped out of a difficult situation. The patterns of such exchanges may vary from culture to culture, and language learners may have to adjust to differences. They also vary from setting to setting: when we say ''thank you'' to a ticket collector at a station barrier as our clipped ticket is handed back to us, we would not (in British society) expect ''not at all'' from the ticket collector (see Aston 1988 for examples of how this operates in Italian service encounters in bookshops). In other cases, the utterance following a response may be less obviously a follow-up and may seem to be just getting on with further conversational business: (1.13) A: Did you see Malcolm? B: Yes. 1.5 Spoken discourse: models of analysis A: What did he say about Brazil? B: Oh he said he''s going next month. A: Did he mention the party? B: No. A: Funny . . . (etc.) Different situations will require different formulae, depending on roles and settings. The teacher''s role as evaluator, for example, makes the follow-up move very important in classrooms; where the follow-up move is withheld, the pupils are likely to suspect that something is wrong, that they have not given the answer the teacher wants, as in our extract from Sinclair and Coulthard''s data: (1.14) T: P: T: P: What do we do with a hacksaw, this hacksaw? Cut trees. Do we cut trees with this? No. No. The pupils know that ''cut trees'' is not the right answer; it is only when one pupil says ''metal'' that the full follow-up occurs (''We cut metal. Yes we cut metal''); the question ''Do we cut trees with this!'' is simply recycling the initiating move, giving the pupils a second chance. 1. Can you put the moves of this discourse into an order that produces a coherent conversation? The conversation takes place at a travel agent''s. What clues do you use to establish the correct order? Are there any moves that are easier to place than others; and if so, why? ''You haven''t no, no.'' ''No . in LittIewoods is it!'' ''I''m awfully sorry, we haven''t . . . urn I don''t know where you can try for Bath actually.'' ''Can I help you?'' ''Okay thanks.'' ''Yeah they''re inside there now.'' ''Urn have you by any chance got anything on Bath!'' ''Urn I don''t really know . . . you could try perhaps Pickfords in Littlewoods, they might be able to help you.'' .. (Birmingham Collection of English Text) 2. Think of a typical encounter with a stranger in the street (e.g. asking the way, asking for change). What is the minimum number of moves necessary to complete a polite exchange in a language that you know other than English? 1 What is discourse analysis? The three-part exchanges we have looked at so far are fascinating in another sense, too, which relates back to our discussion in section 1.3 on speech a m , in that, taken om of context and without the third part, it is often impossible to decide exactly what the functions of the individual speech acts in the exchange are in any completely meaningful way. Consider, for example: (1.15) A: What time is it? B: Five past six. A: What could fill the third part here? Here are some possibilities: 1. A: Thanks. 2. A: Good! Clever girl! 3. A: No it isn''t, and you know it isn''t; it''s half past and you''re late again! ''Thanks'' suggests that A''s question was a genuine request for information. ''Clever girl!'' smacks of the classroom (e.g. a lesson on ''telling the time'' with a big demonstration clock), and ''No it isn''t . . .etc.'' suggests an accusation or a verbal trap for someone who is to be reproached. Neither of the last two is a genuine request for information; teachers usually already know the answers to the questions they ask of their pupils and the reproachful parent or employer in the last case is not ignorant of the time. These examples underline the fact that function is arrived at with reference to the participants, roles and settings in any discourse, and that linguistic forms are interpreted in light of these. This is not to say that all communication between teachers and pupils is of the curious kind exemplified in (1.15); sometimes teachers ask ''real'' questions (''How did you spend the weekend!''), but equally, a lot of language teaching question-and-answer sessions reflect the ''unreal'' questions of Sinclair and Coulthard''s data (''What''s the past tense of take?;''What does wash basin mean!''). Nor do we wish to suggest that ''unreal'' classroom questions serve no purpose; they are a useful means for the teacher of checking the state of knowledge of the students and of providing opportunities for practising language forms. But in evaluating the spoken output of language classrooms we shall at least want to decide whether there is a proper equilibrium or an imbalance between ''real'' communication and ''teacher talk''. We would probably not like to think that our students spent all or most of their time indulging in the make-believe world of ''you-tell-me-things-I-alteady-know''. 1.6 Conversations outside the classroom 1.6 Conversations outside ths dassrom So far we have looked at talk in a rather restricted context: the traditional classroom, where roles are rigidly defined and the patterns of initiation, response and follow-up in exchanges are relatively easy to perceive, and where transactions are heavily marked. The d a s s m m was a convenient place to start, as Sinclair and Coulthard discmend, but it is not the ''real'' world of conversation. It is a peculiar place, a placc .where teachers ask questions to which they already know the answkr$, where pupils (at least younger pupils) have very limited rights as speaker~andwhere evaluation by the teacher of what the pupils say is a vital mechanism in the discourse structure. But using the classroom is most beneficial for QW purposes since one of the things a model for the analysis of classroom talk enables us to do is evaluate our own output as teachers and that of our students. This we shall return to in Chapter 5. For the moment it is more important to examine the claim that the exchange model might be useful for the analysis of talk outside the classroom. If it is, then it could offer a yardstick for the kind of language aimed at in communicative language teaching and for all aspects of the complex chain of materials, methodology, implementation and evaluation, whatever our order of priority within that chain. Conversations outside classroom settings vary in their degree of structuredness, but even so, conversations that seem at first sight to be ''free'' and unstructured can often be shown to have a structure; what will differ is the kinds of speech-act labels needed to describe what is happening, and it is mainly in this area, the functions of the parts of individual moves, that discourse analysts have found it necessary to expand and modify the Sinclair-Coulthard model. Let us begin with a real example: (1.16) (Jozef (J) is a visiting scholar from Hungary at an English department in a British university. He has established a fairly informal and relaxed relationship with Chris (C), a lecturer in the department. He pops into Chris''s room one morning.) C: Hello Jozef. J: Hello Chris . . . could you do me a great favour. C: Yeah. J: I''m going to book four cinema tickets on the phone and they need a credit card number . . .could you give me your credit card number . . . they only accept payment by credit card over the phone. C: Ah. J: I telephoned there and they said they wouldn''t do any reservations C: without a card. J: Yes and I could pay you back in cash. C: Yes . . . sure . no problem at all. 1 J: Yes .. 

Doing action research in english language teaching a guide for practitioners

x Acknowledgements students in Australia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, the Middle East, the UK, and the USA from whom I have learned much about doing qualitative and action research. But this book would never have seen the light of day without the determination and enthusiasm of Naomi Silverman from Routledge and Eli Hinkel, the Series Editor. Whenever we met, they continued to insist that an introductory book on action research was needed. They fired my enthusiasm for this project and I am grateful that they kept it burning. My thanks also to Sophie Cox, who proved to be such a marvellous and careful copy-editor. Of course, none of it would have happened without the continuing support of my family and I thank Ross, Douglas, and Catherine for their confidence in me over all the years. Chapter 1 What is action research? Pre-reading questions Before you read this chapter, think about the following questions. If possible discuss them with a colleague or write some brief responses to each one. • • • What is action research? What do you already know about doing action research? What steps are involved in doing action research? We will explore these questions in this chapter. Language teachers all around the world want to be effective teachers who provide the best learning opportunities for their students. Action research (AR) can be a very valuable way to extend our teaching skills and gain more understanding of ourselves as teachers, our classrooms and our students. In this first chapter, we begin by looking at some of the key concepts in AR – what it is, what characterises it, how it relates to other types of research, and what basic steps are followed when we do it. We will consider what is different about doing AR from doing what all good teachers do – thinking about what is happening in our classrooms. But we will also explore a question you may have already asked yourself – why should teachers bother to do research when, after all, they are employed and paid to be teachers and not researchers? Reflection point What are your views about teachers doing research? In your opinion, what are the advantages and disadvantages of being a teacher researcher? We will come back to these issues later in the chapter. Action research (AR) is something that many language teachers seem to have heard about, but often they have only a hazy idea of what it actually is and what doing it involves. So, one of the first questions teachers new to AR usually ask is: What is action research? 2 What is action research? What is action research? AR is part of a broad movement that has been going on in education generally for some time. It is related to the ideas of ‘reflective practice’ and ‘the teacher as researcher’. AR involves taking a self-reflective, critical, and systematic approach to exploring your own teaching contexts. By critical, I don’t mean being negative and derogatory about the way you teach, but taking a questioning and ‘problematising’ stance towards your teaching. My term, problematising, doesn’t imply looking at your teaching as if it is ineffective and full of problems. Rather, it means taking an area you feel could be done better, subjecting it to questioning, and then developing new ideas and alternatives. So, in AR, a teacher becomes an ‘investigator’ or ‘explorer’ of his or her personal teaching context, while at the same time being one of the participants in it. So, one of the main aims of AR is to identify a ‘problematic’ situation or issue that the participants – who may include teachers, students, managers, administrators, or even parents – consider worth looking into more deeply and systematically. Again, the term problematic does not mean that the teacher is an incompetent teacher. The point is that, as teachers, we often see gaps between what is actually happening in our teaching situation and what we would ideally like to see happening. The central idea of the action part of AR is to intervene in a deliberate way in the problematic situation in order to bring about changes and, even better, improvements in practice. Importantly, the improvements that happen in AR are ones based on information (or to use the research term, data) that an action researcher collects systematically. (Incidentally, data is the plural from the Latin word ‘datum’ meaning ‘something known’, so you will find me using it in the plural.) So, the changes made in the teaching situation arise from solid information rather than from our hunches or assumptions about the way we think things are. To understand what this means in more concrete terms, let’s consider an actual classroom situation in Italy where a language teacher identified a problematic area in her teaching. Classroom voices Isabella Bruschi is a teacher of English language and literature in an upper secondary school in Turin, Italy. Isabella’s starting point for AR was her negative feelings about the oral tests (interrogazione oral) she used in class. She had a whole cluster of questions and doubts about this aspect of her teaching and she was concerned to find out how she could improve things for herself and her students. What makes me feel so uncomfortable when I have to assess students’ oral English? Do I know what happens during an oral test? Am I aware of the nature of the questions I ask and of their different weight? How do I react when students give me the wrong answers? When I intend to help students do I in fact help them? What do my students think of my way of conducting an oral test? What are their preferences? To understand the nature of her problem, she collected this information: What is action research? • • 3 She kept a diary to explore her feelings of uneasiness. She gave students a questionnaire to investigate their preferences and difficulties in oral tests. • • • She recorded a number of oral tests. She asked students for written feedback after the test. She asked a facilitator to interview students after the oral test. The recordings gave her back an image very far from the ideal she had of herself as a teacher. There was a mismatch between her intention to facilitate students’ responses during the test and what was actually happening. She saw a set of behaviours that did not please her. She became aware of her “disturbing interventions”. These were the interruptions she made that were distracting students from searching their minds or following their trains of thought. These are the patterns she found in the way she was questioning students: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Frequent interruptions while students were looking for the answer or for the right word. Questions posed in a sequence, which often changed the original focus and resulted in students feeling embarrassed as they don’t know which question to answer first. Questions which suggested how students should answer. Use of questions formulated as open questions, but treated by the teacher as if they were closed questions. Subsequent use of negative reinforcement in spite of the intention to be helpful. Use of feedback of the type, “no, I actually wanted you to tell me . . .” When she looked at the students’ responses to the open questions in the questionnaire, she found that they confirmed these patterns, as these examples show: I don’t like being interrupted all the time without having the possibility of carrying forward what I want to say. Being passive. When the teacher talks too much. The questions “in bursts”, without being given the time to answer. As a result of this information, she set up three strategies to improve her teaching: 1. 2. 3. Giving students the questions for the oral test five minutes before answering so that they could have time to think and organise their ideas. Restricting her interventions to a minimum. When interviewing, paraphrasing what students say to help them keep the thread of their thoughts, search their memory or trigger off new ideas. Her students’ comments after the test show that these changes made a big difference: What I liked in the oral test was the fact that you didn’t interrupt me while I was speaking. (Mara) I appreciate the fact that you didn’t interrupt me while I was talking and that you tried to help when I had difficulties, and the fact that you were listening attentively to what I was saying, while encouraging me to go on. (Sabrina) 4 What is action research? I felt helped when the teacher repeated what I had said. This helped me reformulate my thoughts more clearly. (Francesca) This is what Isabella writes at the end of the AR cycle. When she considers what it has all meant for her teaching: I have a neat perception of the changes I’ve been through, which doesn’t mean that I have solved all my problems. I have certainly acquired new tools, and, above all, a greater awareness of my being a teacher. Observing and analysing . . . have made me see more clearly the asymmetric nature of classroom communication. As a result I now feel more in control of what happens during an oral test. She adds this comment on how the research will continue to have an impact on her teaching and how she intends to continue her investigations: I don’t think my research ends here. I think the way I formulate and ask the [test] questions is open to further enquiry and reflection. The research on my “questioning” of students has opened up new perspectives to my teaching. Now I know that the cycle of explanation–oral test–assessment is inadequate. What I need to investigate now are the opportunities I give my students to pose questions themselves and the space I give them to discuss ideas among themselves. In other words, what opportunities do I give them to practise such skills as selecting, ordering and organising information into a coherent speech before taking the oral test? Do I give them enough time to understand and learn in the first place? My new research will be on alternative ways to do assessment, keeping in mind that as a teacher I am not just a transmitter of knowledge, but a facilitator of processes so as to make students autonomous in the construction of their knowledge. (Data translated and supplied by Graziella Pozzo) Isabella’s situation illustrates how AR can throw a light on our teaching practices and improve an unsatisfactory situation. It shows how she identified and improved a classroom dilemma by using a reflective research cycle of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. Reflection point Look back at the pre-reading notes you made for this chapter. Would you add anything to your statements about AR? If possible, discuss your ideas with a colleague. Here are some descriptions of AR that were suggested by three of my teacher researcher students located in different parts of Mexico. At this point, you may want to compare what you think with their ideas about AR. What is action research? 5 Classroom voices Action research is research carried out in the classroom by the teacher of the course, mainly with the purpose of solving a problem or improving the teaching/learning process. (Elizabeth, Sonora) Action research is carried out by teachers in their context, in their classrooms. Teachers identify a problem or an area they wish to improve and based on theory or experience or a hypothesis they think of an intervention. They document the intervention and results of it. If the results are positive they could lead to the dissemination of the information. If not, the cycle may be started again. (Iraís, Tlaxcala) AR is a reflective process that aims to solve a particular teaching-learning problem that has been identified. One of the aims of AR is to improve the teaching practice and in the long run the whole curriculum. In order to do action research it is necessary to carry out a rigorous study in which the problem has to be clearly specified, an action plan has to be described and carried out, and finally an evaluation has to be contemplated in order to show if the decisions taken were the adequate ones. (Carmen, Mexico City) To follow up what these Mexican teachers stated, here are some definitions offered by writers on action research: ‘self-reflective enquiry’ undertaken by participants in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or educational practices as well as their understanding of these practices and the situations in which these practices are carried out. (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 220) the study of a social situation with the view to improving the quality of the action in it. (Elliott, 1991, p. 69) a flexible methodology, not merely in terms of being eclectic in research methods, but more fundamentally in needing to adapt to the social and political situation in which it is employed. (Somekh, 1993, p. 29) small scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close examination of the effects of such intervention. (van Lier, 1996, p. 32) a self-reflective, systematic and critical approach to enquiry by participants who are at the same time members of the research community. The aim is to identify problematic situations or issues considered by the participants to be worthy of investigation in order to bring about critically informed changes in practice. Action research is underpinned by democratic principles in that ownership of change is invested in those who conduct the research. (Burns, in Cornwell, 1999, p. 5) 

Elementary communication games



Encyclopedia of computer science and technology

Encyclopedia of greek and roman mythology

 to informational summary. Indeed, there are many advantages to factual clarity and simplicity, since a summary of the basic outlines of the most common versions of the story of Heracles, for example, will be more useful to a beginning student of mythology than a treatment weighed down with every variant version extant in ancient literature. This leaves the danger, however, that the student will be left with the notion that there is essentially one Heracles consistent across all ancient texts. Informational reference works tend to have a homogenizing effect on their subject. We have attempted to deal with both potential problems by offering, on the one hand, concise entries on mythological figures that contain the most important versions of the myths and the ones that are the most prominent in the major works of ancient literature and, on the other hand, longer entries on ancient authors and their individual works. The entries on mythological figures are based on a close reading of the primary sources. In creating these entries, we have striven to bring to light important differences in the Greek and Roman versions of the myth, rather than producing a streamlined narrative. We have also included references to the major classical sources; these references are necessarily selective but allow the reader to consult the ancient works themselves. Mythological figures are listed under their Greek names, with crossreferences indicated under the Roman names. The index can assist in finding entries. Entries on the more important literary works include an introduction to the work, a synopsis, and critical commentary. Users of this reference book, then, can begin by consulting the entry on Heracles and become acquainted with his story. They can then go on to read about the different representations of Heracles in Apollonius of Rhodess Voyage of the Argonauts, the eighth book of Virgils Aeneid, Sophocles Trachiniae, Ovids Metamorphoses, and so forth. Conversely, a reader of Statiuss Thebaid who is interested in the character of Hypsipyle can read the mythological Introduction entry detailing her basic story and, in addition, consult the entry on Apolloniuss Voyage of the Argonauts, where she plays an important role. Cross-references to other entries are designed to facilitate this movement between entries on mythological figures and entries on ancient authors and works. As we said above, the underlying aim is to enable the student to appreciate ancient myth in the light of ancient literature, rather than presenting myth as a fossilized set of stories abstracted from the multiple contexts of their telling. In the same spirit, we have included information on the visual representation of classical myths in various media. Myths were not narrated solely in verbal form, and the artistic representations often surprise us by emphasizing scenes or dimensions of a story less prominent or even omitted in textual versions. We have based our selection of entries on their relevance to and prominence in the central works of classical literature and art. This reference work is not meant to be an exhaustive repository of mythological figures. More unusual mythological figures and, in general, recondite detail may be sought in Pierre Grimals richly erudite Dictionary of Classical Mythology. The distinguishing feature of our book, by contrast, is the inclusion of substantial entries on literary works, particularly those that are significant in mythological terms. This latter criterion guided our selection of literary entries. There is an individual entry, for example, on each of Euripides plays, because the subject matter of Euripidean tragedy is mythological. By contrast, there is only one synthetic entry on Aristophanes, and no entries on his individual works, because Aristophanes comedies, while they do sometimes include mythological elements, are not predominantly focused on myth but rather on a comic vision of contemporary Athenian society. At the same time, some works and authors, while important in mythographical terms, are less likely to appear on an undergraduate reading list, and, in general, are more obscure. Thus, while we have included a brief informational entry on Diodorus Siculus, Introduction there is no extensive discussion of his work. In effect, two criteria are at work in determining the inclusion and extent of literary entries: the importance of the work in literary terms and its relevance to our understanding of mythology. xi The myths of the classical world may be classed among the richest legacies of Western civilization. We hope that our reference work contributes to the understanding and enjoyment of these astonishing stories. A 6 Achelous A river god who engaged in a legendary combat with Heracles. Classical sources are Apollodoruss Library (1.8.1, 2.7.5), Diodorus Siculuss Library of History (4.34.3, 4.35.3), Hyginuss Fabulae (31), Ovids Metamorphoses (9.1100), Philostratuss Imagines (4.16), and Sophocles Trachiniae (921). During the 11th of his Twelve Labors, Heracles descended to Hades, where he met the ghost of Meleager. There, Meleager extracted from Heracles the promise that on the heros return from the underworld he would find and marry his sister Deianira. Heracles successfully battled Achelous in a wrestling match for the hand of Deianira. The battle was hard fought because the river god was capable of changing form. Achelous became a snake, then a bull. Heracles pulled off one horn and defeated him. This horn was associated with a cornucopia, or horn of plenty. The combat of Achelous and Heracles was frequently represented in antiquity; Philostratuss Imagines includes a description of a painting showing various scenes from the myth. Achilleid Statius (ca. 9296 c.e.) The Achilleid, an unfinished epic poem on which Statius worked between the publication of his Thebaid (91/92 c.e.) and his death (ca. 96 c.e.), tells the beginnings of the story of the hero Achilles.  Only one book and a portion of the following book exist. Statiuss epic is notable for following the entire life story of a single hero, rather than relating a more concentrated series of connected events forming part of a single phase of action. As elsewhere, Statius displays a playful yet rigorous self-consciousness as he simultaneously enacts well-established epic conventions, examines their mechanisms and internal tensions, and sometimes pushes them to their breaking point. In the surviving fragment, Statius pays special attention to the category of gender and its complex interaction with the inherited codes of the epic genre. Synopsis Book 1 The poet addresses the muse (see Muses) and bids her tell of Achilles. Homer has made him famous, but there is more to be told about the hero. Statius, already author of the Thebaid, will tell the heros entire life. He asks the emperor Domitian to grant pardon that he does not yet write an epic on his deeds; Achilles will furnish the prelude. Paris is leaving Sparta with Helen and making for Troy. Thetis, observing his ship, is alarmed and delivers a speech: She recognizes the fulfillment of a prophecy made by Proteuswar is coming, and her son Achilles will wish to join it. She wishes she had done more  to prevent this unhappy outcome but will ask Neptune (see Poseidon) for a storm to oppose Pariss ship. In pitiable tones, she approaches Neptune and asks him to oppose the ship carrying Paris, robber and profaner of hospitality. Neptune replies that the war between Greece and Troy has been ordained by Jupiter (see Zeus) and cannot be prevented: He consoles her with a prophecy of Achilles heroic career. She conceives of another plan and seeks out the dwelling of Chiron, who has charge of Achilles. Chiron eagerly runs to meet her and leads her into the cave. She tells of her presages of doom and demands that he hand over Achilles to her immediately: Concealing her true aim, she claims that she is going to take him to the edge of Ocean (Oceanus) and purify him. Chiron assents and comments that Achilles seems to be growing more aggressive and violent, less liable to listen to his tutor. Achilles at that moment returns, holding lion cubs he has just captured, and embraces his mother. Patroclus follows closely behind. They have a banquet together, and Achilles sings songs of heroes. Thetis stays awake afterward, trying to think of a good hiding place for Achilles: After ruling out various possibilities, she chooses the island of Scyros. She calls forth her two-dolphin chariot, picks up the slumbering Achilles in her arms, and carries him down to the sea. As she departs with her son, Chiron and the local deities lament. Waking up the next day, a disoriented Achilles asks where he is. Thetis explains to him her concern about his mortality and the coming danger, and, drawing on mythical exempla, encourages him to wear womens clothing. Achilles resists until he sees Deidamia, daughter of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, participating in festivities of Pallas and becomes immediately infatuated. His mother perceives this and encourages him to join their dancing in womans guise. He allows the womans clothing to be placed on him. She fashions him into a woman and coaches him on feminine demeanor. Thetis then presents him to the king as Achilles sister, asking him Achilleid to keep her safely secluded. The group of girls accepts him happily. Thetis addresses the island and bids it keep Greek ships far away. Agamemnon, in the meanwhile, stirs up war, inciting indignation at Pariss deed. The poet lists the numerous communities joining the expeditionall except Thessaly, since Achilles is too young and Peleus too old. The Greek fleet gathers at Aulis, including well-known heroes, but all yearn for the absent Achilles. He is hailed already as the greatest of the Greeks and most likely to defeat Hector. Protesilaus presses Tiresias to reveal to them the location of Achilles. Tiresias goes into a prophetic trance and sees that Achilles is on the island of Lycomedes, shamefully wearing womens clothing. Tydeus and Ulysses (see Odysseus) decide to seek him out and bring him back. They depart. In the meanwhile, Deidamia alone suspects that Achilles is a man, for he has been courting her, teaching her to play the lyre, while she teaches him to weave. She half-knows that he is a man and desires her but will not allow him to confess. In a grove sacred to Bacchus, the women are celebrating a triennial rite at which no men are allowed to be present. Achilles, however, begins to regret his lost male pursuits and complains that he cannot even play the mans part in love. He rapes Deidamia, then reveals himself to her as Achilles. He consoles her with the greatness of his lineage and commits to protecting her from her fathers anger. Feeling love for Achilles herself, and also fearing for his safety, she keeps his secret, conceals her pregnancy, and eventually gives birth. In the meantime, Ulysses and Diomedes navigate the Cyclades and approach Scyros. The two heroes disembark and begin walking toward the palace. Diomedes wonders why Ulysses purchased Bacchic wands, cymbals, and other objects, and Ulysses does not yet say why but bids him bring all these along with a shield, a spear, and the trumpeter Agyrtes. Ulysses introduces himself and Tydeus and claims to be spying out approaches to Troy. Lycomedes invites them to be his guests. Achilleid Rumor spreads of the Greek leaders arrival. Achilles is eager to see them and their arms. The women are invited to join the banquet along with the guests. Deidamia strives to conceal Achilles, but he begins to give himself away by his unmaidenlike demeanor. In order to draw Achilles out Ulysses craftily speaks of war and the ignoble choice of those who remain behind. The next day Tydeus brings forth the gifts. The maidens, including Achilles, perform Bacchic rites and dances, but Achilles stands out as unfeminine. Afterward, the women flock to the Bacchic gifts and adornment, while Achilles rushes to the weapons. Ulysses whispers to him that he knows who he is and encourages him to join the war; the trumpeter blows a blast on the trumpet, and Achilles is revealed as a man. Deidamia cries out, and Achilles addresses Lycomedes, revealing his identity and his relation with Deidamia, asking for her in marriage and placing his grandson at his feet. Lycomedes is won over. That night, Deidamia laments that their marriage is so soon to be over, that Achilles departs for war and will soon forget about her or take other women as his companions. He promises her that he will stay true to her and bring her back gifts from Troy. The poet observes that Achilles words are destined to remain unfulfilled. Book 2 (fragmentary) Achilles, splendid now in his arms, makes sacrifice and addresses his mother, informing her that he is joining the expedition against Troy. Deidamia, holding her child Pyrrhus (see Neoư ptolemus), follows his departure with her eyes. Achilles is momentarily regretful as he gazes toward her but is drawn back to his warlike spirit by Ulysses, and he asks to hear the causes of the war. Ulysses tells of the rape of Helen and whips up Achilles into a bellicose rage by imagining how it would be if someone similarly seized Deidamia. Diomedes then asks Achilles to recount his own upbringing. Achilles tells them how Chiron raised him to be very tough and strong.  He was trained in running, hunting, warfare, and other manly pursuits. He recalls all that he can, then remarks that his mother knows the rest. Commentary With the Achilleid, Statius continues his daring and highly original adaptation of the epic tradition to unconventionally framed mythological themes. In the Thebaid, Statius took a mythological sequencethe Seven against Thebeswith strong tragic associations and, in adapting them to epic narrative, went out of his way to intensify the presence of tragedy and tragic paradigms within the space of epic. Statius is a writer at once intensely and selfconsciously traditional, and at the same time audaciously original. In the present instance, Statius writes the story of the hero Achilles a figure so famously and indelibly represented by Homer in his Iliad that there would seem to be no plausible area for improvement or emulation. Statius points out, however, that there is more to Achilles story than Homer wrote about, and this more constitutes an important justification for his epic. Statius will fill in the interstices with episodes Homer does not include, yet in such a way as to transform our perception of the properly heroic episodes that Homer does include and that Statius now commits to rewriting (although, in the event, the poem remained incomplete, and Statius did not arrive at the Iliadic portion of Achilles narrative). Provocatively, Statius will write the entire hero, i.e., the whole story of his life, instead of a mere distillation of his heroic career. In making this choice, Statius violates the epic convention, spanning the period from Homers practice to Horaces precepts, of commencing epic narration in medias res, i.e., starting in the midst of an ongoing development rather than from the very beginning. Statius was exceptionally alert to questions of beginning and ending, as, for example, the beginning of his Thebaid demonstrates, and he was thus equally aware of the consequences 

English collocations in use how words work together for fluent and natural english



English grammar a university course angela downing

x  ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5.8 Anti-causative structure 5.9 Analytical causatives with a resulting attribute 5.10 Summary of examples of transitivity structures in material processes  5.11 Examples of mental processes 5.12 Examples of cognitive processes 5.13 Carrier with its Attribute 5.14 Current Attribute and resulting Attribute 5.15 The be/belong possessive structure 5.16 Verbs of possession in the Possessor/Possessed structure 5.17 Verbal processes 5.18 Place and time 5.19 Basic realisations of semantic roles 5.20 Nominalised realisations of semantic roles 5.21 Two cognitive mappings of a situation 5.22 High and low transitivity 5.23 Main types of processes, participants and circumstances 6.1 Theme and Rheme 6.2 Multiple Themes 6.3 Themes derived from a Hypertheme 7.1 Direct and indirect speech 8.1 Constituent elements of the English verbal group 8.2 Be, have and do 8.3 Verbs + particles (phrasal verbs) 9.1 Speech time as reference time 9.2 The scope of the simple Present tense 9.3 The Present Perfect and the Past tense 9.4 Adjuncts of indefinite time and adjuncts of definite time 9.5 Lexical aspect of English verbs 10.1 Pre-head, head and post-head in nominal groups 10.2 Basic structure of the nominal group 10.3 Definite and indefinite reference 10.4 Summary of determinative features 10.5 Descriptors and classifiers and their ordering 10.6 Defining and supplementive adverbs 11.1 Structure of the adjectival group 11.2 Grading options in English for comparative and superlative adjectives 11.3 Interrelated uses of certain time adverbs 12.1 Structure of the prepositional phrase 12.2 Prepositions and adverbs 165 166 170 172 175 177 177 179 179 183 186 191 191 192 195 196 217 218 229 275 288 289 307 318 319 327 329 336 362 363 375 390 399 408 422 430 453 468 478 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION In consonance with the welcome suggestions made by Routledge and reviewers alike, this book has been revised again for its third edition with certain aims in mind. The first, in this age of cuts, was to slim down the content as regards the length of the text, without losing the character and coherence of the whole. This I have proceeded to do, reducing the length of each chapter as well as that of other sections. Offsetting this pruning, there was the need to cover or amplify certain areas of the grammar that had been underdeveloped in previous editions, despite their importance. Such is the case with conditional sentences. They are complex enough for non-native students to be wary of using them, yet at the same time common enough in interpersonal interaction, both spoken and written, to warrant careful attention and practice. They also have interesting variants which students may be unaware of. The gap is now filled in Chapter 7. A further aim has been to increase the projection of the grammar to an American readership. Differences of grammar between Standard American and Standard British English, which already appear in the second edition, are now more numerous and explicit; wherever possible, they are accompanied by authentic illustrations. It is wellknown that the major differences between these two standard forms of English lie in the lexis rather than in the grammar, and that features of American grammar are soon taken up and adopted, especially by young British speakers. New illustrations, both one-liners and short texts, have been selected so as to provide, at the same time, American lexical items that differ from their British English counterparts. Comparisons of American with British English as regards grammar in use are made where the grammatical point in question is being discussed, and are signalled as AmE vs BrE. A further detail is that the term Module is now replaced by Unit, as being more transparent to American readers. I feel confident that Philip Locke, were he still alive, would welcome these further changes, together with those already carried out in the second edition of 2006. Without his invaluable collaboration in the writing of the first edition, published in 1992, it is likely that the whole conception of English Grammar, A University Course might have been different. I am particularly indebted to him for his enormous enthusiasm combined with unflappability, which made our joint collaboration so enjoyable. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My debt to my predecessors is, as before, very great. In addition to the grammars of Michael Halliday, Randolph Quirk, Sydney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, the wealth of information, corpus examples and frequencies provided by the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, by Douglas Biber and his colleagues Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad and Edward Finegan, have been a reliable resource of great value. Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum’s A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar, based on their previous Cambridge Grammar of Contemporary English, though not specifically a functional grammar, is both informative and a pleasure to read. Aimed at students who will shortly be seeking employment, these texts argue for the advantages of having a knowledge of grammar, an ability to express thoughts clearly and the capacity to analyse a sentence or paragraph for the meanings they will or will not support, all of which I wholly endorse. I also thank C.W.K. Gleerup, Lund, for A Corpus of English Conversation edited by Jan Svartvik and Randolph Quirk. Specialised grammars such as those of Geoff Thompson, Thomas and Meriel Bloor, Lachlan Mackenzie and Elena Martínez Caro among others have their place on my bookshelves. Specialised monographs and articles have had to be kept to a minimum in the Select Bibliography. I am grateful for access to BYU-BNC (based on the British National Corpus from Oxford University Press) (Davies (2004–) and for the use of the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (Davies (2008–). I am indebted to the many friends, colleagues and consultants who have made helpful comments on the previous editions. Among the consultants I was pleased to receive the reports and suggestions made by Joyce Stavick, of the University of North Georgia, by Pentii Haddington, of the University of Oulu, Finland and by the anonymous reviewer who provided perceptive comments and questions. I have implemented as many of their suggestions as has been possible in the time allowed. Also much appreciated were the many useful comments made by Mike Hannay (Free University, Amsterdam), Andrei Stoevsky (University of Sofia), Chris Butler (University of Wales, Swansea), Hilde Hasselgård (University of Oslo) and Bruce Taylor (University of Boston). I owe thanks to Geoff Thompson (University of Liverpool) for allowing me to use the best real-life spontaneous utterance of multiple left-detachment, and more recently, some of his striking examples of adjective-headed generic nouns. Thanks also to Thomas Givón and White Cloud Publishing for allowing me to insert an extract from his novel Downfall of a Jesuit. I remember with affection Emilio Lorenzo of the Real Academia Española, and his words of encouragement when the first edition was at an embryonic stage. I would especially like to express my thanks to Chris Butler and to Jorge Arús (Universidad Complutense) for their unfailing willingness to come to my ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  xiii rescue in technological matters; to Paloma Tejada, also of the Complutense for reading through the whole second edition and providing me with abundant comments; to Laura Alba (UNED) for first-hand confirmation of unusual items of American English, Carmen Santamaría (Universidad de Alcalá) for drawing my attention to certain details and Laura Hidalgo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) for reading through many sections of the new edition in preparation; my boundless gratitude go to both Enrique and Eduardo Hidalgo for their help with the diagrams. My thanks go also to Louisa Semlyen for offering me the opportunity of a third edition, and to Sophie Jaques and Rosemary Baron of Routledge for their patience and help. Thanks also to copy editor Jane Olorenshaw and to Tamsin Ballard, Julie Willis and the production team at Swales and Willis Ltd. on behalf of Taylor and Francis for efficient work prior to and during production. Finally, I thank my long-suffering family for their constant support and encouragement. INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION AIMS OF THE COURSE This book has been written primarily for undergraduate and graduate students of English as a foreign or second language. It is also addressed to teachers and lecturers, whether native or non-native speakers of English, and to others interested in applying a broadly functional approach to language teaching in higher education. It assumes an intermediate standard of knowledge and practical handling of the language and, from this point of departure, seeks to fulfil the following aims: 1 to further students’ knowledge of English through exploration and analysis; 2 to help students acquire an integrated vision of English, rather than concentrate on unrelated areas; 3 to see a grammar as providing a means of understanding the relation of form to meaning, and meaning to use, in context; 4 to provide a basic terminology which, within this framework, will enable students to make these relationships explicit; 5 to stimulate the learners’ capacity to interact with others in English and to express themselves appropriately in everyday registers, both spoken and written. While not pretending to be exhaustive, its wide coverage and functional approach have been found appropriate not only in first degree courses but also in postgraduate programmes and as a background resource for courses, publications and work on translation, stylistics, reading projects and discourse studies. A FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO GRAMMAR A functional grammar is functional in various ways. In the first place, it does not consist of a set of rules governing all forms of grammatical structures and their relation to one another, with a concern that they are ‘well-formed’. Rather, a functional approach is geared towards meaning and aims to show how meanings are expressed in different forms according to speakers’ and writers’ communicative goals. This view is based, following Michael Halliday, on the assumption that all languages fulfil two higher-level functions (metafunctions) in our lives. One is to express our interpretation of the world as we experience it (sometimes called the ‘ideational’ or the ‘representational’ function); the other is to interact with others in order to bring about changes in the environment (the ‘interpersonal’ function). How we put together or ‘organise’ what we say or INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION  xv write in such a way that the ‘message’ is coherent and relevant to the situation represents a third (the ‘textual’ meta-function), and this, too, is given its place in a functional grammar. Second, the regular patterns of different kinds that can be distinguished in language reflect the uses which a language serves. For instance, the clause types known as ‘declarative’, ‘interrogative’ and ‘imperative’ serve the purposes of expressing a multitude of types of social behaviour, such as making statements, asking questions and giving orders. In this area the pragmatic concepts of speech acts, politeness, relevance and inference are brought in to explain how speakers use and interpret linguistic forms and sequences in English within cultural settings. In describing the more detailed mechanisms of English, the notion of ‘function’ is used to describe syntactic categories such as Subjects and Objects, semantic roles such as Agent and informational categories such as Theme and Rheme, Given and New. We shall see, for instance that in English the Agent, that is, the semantic role indicating the one who instigates or carries out an action, typically conflates with the Subject: ‘Tom’ in Tom spent all the money; furthermore, the grammatical Subject in a clause tends to occur initially in English, thus occupying the same position as Theme as well as Agent. Subject, Agent, Theme is not a rigid choice, however: the elements can be moved around, as shown in 1.3.2. A functional approach also will point out the formal differences, but the principal aim will be to explain how different variations of form affect meanings, and how speakers and writers use meanings and forms to interact in social settings. Third, this type of grammar is functional in that each linguistic element is seen not in isolation but in relation to others, since it has potential to realise different functions. Structural patterns are seen as functional patterns of constituents, whether of participants and processes, of modifiers and head of, for instance, a noun, or of Subject, verb and Complements, among others. These in turn are realised in a variety of ways according to the communicative effect desired. Speakers and writers are free, within the resources a particular language displays, to choose those patterns which best carry out their communicative purposes at every stage of their interaction with other speakers and readers. With these considerations in mind, the present book has been designed to place meaning firmly within the grammar and, by stressing the meaningful functions of grammatical forms and structures, to offer a description of the grammatical phenomena of English in use, both in speech and writing. This book, we hope, may serve as a foundation for further study in specific areas or as a resource for the designing of other materials for specific purposes. PRESENTATION OF CONTENT The grammatical content of the course is presented in three blocks: •• •• a first chapter giving a bird’s-eye view of the whole course and defining the basic concepts and terms used in it; seven chapters describing clausal and sentence patterns, together with their corresponding elements of structure, from syntactic, semantic, textual and communicative-pragmatic points of view; and 

In the loop a reference guide to american english idioms

BEAT A DEAD HORSE to argue or pursue a point or topic without the possibility of success BEHIND THE EIGHT BALL in a difficult situation or position 1. Barbara’s parents have told her to study medicine but she really wants to study law. How is she going to explain this to them? She’s behind the eight ball. 1. They should give up trying to argue with the boss on that subject. They’re beating a dead horse. 2. My wife wants me to hire my brother-in-law to work in my company, but I don’t want to because he’s very lazy. I’m behind the eight ball on this one. 2. The boy kept asking for a motorcycle, but his mother told him he could not have one and she would not change her mind. She told him he was beating a dead horse. Synonyms: back to the wall; in a bind/fix/jam; between the devil and the deep blue sea; between a rock and a hard place Synonyms: run (something) into the ground The expression comes from the game of billiards, or pool, in which the eight ball is always pocketed last. If one accidentally sinks the eight ball before the others, one automatically loses the game. Trying to hit another ball that is too close to the eight ball is seen as a risky situation. The expression is usually used to describe verbal communication. BEAT A HASTY RETREAT to run very fast in the opposite direction 1. The old man came out on the porch to chase away the small boys who were throwing rocks at his windows. When they saw him, they beat a hasty retreat. BELOW THE BELT, HIT (SOMEONE) to act unfairly 2. The cat wandered into the neighbor’s yard, but it beat a hasty retreat when it saw the dog. 1. John told Robert about the job he was planning to apply for and Robert went out and got it himself! Robert doesn’t play fair. He hits below the belt. Synonym: make tracks 2. Mary introduced Sally to her boyfriend, Mike, and before she knew it, Sally and Mike were dating. That was below the belt. BEAT ABOUT/AROUND THE BUSH to speak or write evasively; to talk around an issue The expression originates from the sport of boxing, in which it is against the rules to hit one’s opponent below his or her belt. 1. Judy couldn’t come right out and tell her fiancé that she no longer wanted to marry him. She had to beat around the bush until he understood. BEND (SOMEONE’S) EAR to talk to someone for a long time 2. If you disagree with my opinion, just tell me. Don’t beat around the bush. 1. I dread it every time that woman calls me on the telephone because she bends my ear about how her children don’t appreciate her. Antonym: get to the point Synonyms: stonewall; hem and haw 2. Don’t mention politics to Bill. He loves talking about politics and he’ll bend your ear about it for hours. The phrase originates from a hunting practice dating to the 15th century, in which hunters hired ‘beaters’ to drive small animals out of bushes where the hunters could more easily get to them. The beaters would lightly beat around the edges of the bushes to lure the animals out without completely frightening them away. The expression usually has a negative connotation. BESIDE (ONESELF) distraught; very anxious and troubled 1. When the mother couldn’t find her young son in the crowd, she was beside herself with worry. BEAT (SOMEONE) TO THE PUNCH to do something before someone else does it 2. I was beside myself when I realized the fire had destroyed my house. 1. They decided to make an offer to buy the house, but when they did, they found that someone else had already bought it. Someone beat them to the punch. BESIDE THE POINT irrelevant 2. Linda was going to invite him out to lunch but he beat her to the punch. He invited her before she had a chance to ask him. 1. Your excuse for not giving me your homework on Monday is beside the point. It was due the Friday before. BEAT THE BUSHES to search exhaustively 2. Her argument that she needed a new dress for the dance was beside the point. We simply couldn’t afford one. 1. We’ll have to beat the bushes if we want to find another editor as good as Arthur was. 3. The judge decided that the lawyer’s argument was beside the point, and told the jury to disregard it. 2. I’ve beat the bushes trying to find the right spare part for my old car, but I haven’t found it yet. This idiom stems from the idea of being separate from, or not part of, the main idea (the point). Compare to: leave no stone unturned 5 BET (ONE’S) BOOTS to be sure BEYOND THE PALE beyond or outside the limits of morally or socially acceptable behavior 1. Paula’s never late. If she said she would be here at 9:00, you can bet your boots she will be. 1. That remark Jerry made wasn’t simply in poor taste. It was beyond the pale. 2. I’ll bet my boots that the salesman will try to get us to buy a more expensive car. They always do. 2. Ron received an invitation to dinner and didn’t have the decency to let his hosts know he wouldn’t be able to attend. I think that kind of behavior is beyond the pale. Synonym: bet (one’s) bottom dollar Whereas bet one’s bottom dollar can be used in both the affirmative and negative, bet one’s boots is used only in the affirmative. The word pale in this expression should not be confused with the adjective meaning “colorless.” Here, pale means a region surrounded by a paling or fence and ruled by a governing body. In British history, the pale was the area in and around Dublin, Ireland, which was colonized and ruled by the English. Beyond the pale was anything outside this area. To the English, this was synonymous with being outside law and order, i.e. outside civilization. BET (ONE’S) BOTTOM DOLLAR to be sure 1. I know you think you’re going to get that job, but don’t bet your bottom dollar on it. 2. I’m sure they’ll be married before the end of the year. I’d bet my bottom dollar on it. BIG CHEESE an important, powerful or influential person Synonym: bet (one’s) boots Whereas bet one’s boots is used only in the affirmative, bet one’s bottom dollar can be used in both the affirmative and the negative. 1. You can tell he’s the big cheese in this city because everyone listens to what he says – even the mayor. 2. She must really think she’s a big cheese. She speaks to her co-workers as if they were her servants. BETWEEN A ROCK AND A HARD PLACE facing two difficult outcomes for the same situation Synonyms: bigwig; big shot; big wheel; head honcho BIG FISH IN A SMALL POND a person who is considered important primarily because the place or setting is small 1. Ralph found out that his brother cheated on an exam, and he knows he should tell the teacher, but he is hesitating because it’s his brother. He’s caught between a rock and a hard place. 1. I accepted a teaching position in a small village overseas because I will have responsibilities that I wouldn’t be able to get for years in a big city. I like the idea of being a big fish in a small pond. 2. The doctor told his patient that he had a very contagious disease and that it was important to tell his family. When the man refused, the doctor didn’t know whether he should call his patient’s family and tell them. He was between a rock and a hard place. 2. Diane was a big fish in a small pond in her hometown, but when she moved to New York City, nobody knew who she was. Synonym: between the devil and the deep blue sea Compare to: in a bind/fix/jam; over a barrel; behind the eight ball BIG SHOT an important, powerful, or influential person Between a rock and a hard place is more dramatic than in a bind and would be used when the problem of choice has no apparent or easy solution. 1. The company’s big shots are getting free trips to Hawaii this year. 2. Now that you’ve been made a vice-president, you’re really a big shot, aren’t you? BETWEEN THE DEVIL AND THE DEEP BLUE SEA facing two difficult outcomes for the same situation Synonyms: big wheel; bigwig; big cheese; head honcho, heavyweight 1. I consider both Paul and Mitch to be friends of mine. Now they are mad at each other and each wants me to take his side against the other. No matter what I do I could lose one friend or both. I’m between the devil and the deep blue sea. The expression big shot is of ten used sarcastically or disparagingly. 2. Dana’s really between the devil and the deep blue sea. The boss wants her to lie about the financial state of the company. If she does, it would be unethical, but if she doesn’t, the boss might find a way to fire her. Synonym: between a rock and a hard place 6 BIG WHEEL an important, powerful, or influential person Whereas face the music focuses more on accepting responsibility for some misdeed, bite the bullet and grin and bear it focus more on preparing oneself to accept something painful or difficult. The expression originates from the practice where, before the days of anesthesia, a person undergoing an operation might have been told to bite down on a bullet to distract from the pain. 1. All the big wheels get the use of company cars and parking spaces right next to the door of the building. 2. Janet says she doesn’t want to become a big wheel in the company because she doesn’t want so much responsibility. BITE THE DUST to be destroyed or ruined beyond repair; slang for “to die” Synonyms: bigwig; big shot; big cheese; head honcho, heavyweight BIGWIG an important, powerful or influential person 1. The boss didn’t like my proposal and he wants me to start over. Another good idea bites the dust. 2. I think this lamp just bit the dust. It broke and I know it’s not worth fixing. 1. Fred likes to think he’s a bigwig but he really doesn’t have much power outside his own department. 2. Did you see all the expensive cars in the parking lot outside? There must be a meeting of company bigwigs today. BITTER/HARD PILL TO SWALLOW a difficult or unpleasant reality to deal with 1. John discovered the hard truth about responsibility. He didn’t get his college application in on time and the school won’t reconsider. It was a hard pill to swallow, but he had to learn the hard way. Synonyms: big wheel; big shot; big cheese; head honcho Compare to: heavyweight The expression bigwig is usually applied to a person high up in a corporate structure. 2. Jill thought she was a good singer. When her brother told her she was tone-deaf, it was a bitter pill to swallow. BIRD’S-EYE VIEW a broad view or overview of something or someplace The expression suggests something that, like a pill, is unpleasant but cannot be avoided. 1. This outline will give you a bird’s-eye view of my new book. BLACK AND BLUE discolored from a bruise; injured in a fight either physically or verbally 2. The flight attendant said if we sit on the right side of the airplane, we’d get a bird’s-eye view of the Grand Canyon. 1. The girl fell out of the tree but didn’t break any bones. She just had a black and blue knee. The expression suggests the view that a bird gets when it flies overhead. 2. James came out of the meeting black and blue, since he had made so many mistakes preparing the report without consulting his boss. BITE OFF MORE THAN (ONE) CAN CHEW to take on more work or responsibility than one can accomplish BLACK MARKET a system of buying and selling illegal goods or goods at illegal prices or quantities 1. Sue plans to oversee the construction of her new house at the same time that she has taken on a lot of volunteer work at her son’s school. I think she has bitten off more than she can chew. 1. During the war each household was allotted a small amount of sugar and butter each month. If you wanted more, you had to buy it on the black market. 2. They can’t keep up with the number of classes they’re taking at the university. They bit off more than they can chew. 2. There is a growing black market for consumer goods that are difficult or impossible to find here. BITE THE BULLET to face a difficult or unpleasant situation BLACK OUT to lose consciousness temporarily 1. With our credit cards, we’ve been spending more money than we have. We’re going to have to bite the bullet and figure out a way to pay for everything we’ve charged. 1. After my operation, the doctor told me not to drive for a few months because I might black out and have an accident. 2. Tom was walking down the street in the hot sun. He became dizzy and then blacked out. 2. The doctor says you’re going to have to change your life style unless you want to become very sick. It’s time to bite the bullet, take a look at what you’re doing to yourself, and change before it’s too late. A blackout means a period of unconsciousness. The expression is also used when the electricity goes out in a city. As a noun, blackout is one word. Compare to: face the music; grin and bear it; take the bull by the horns 7 BLACK SHEEP an outcast BLOW OFF STEAM to express one’s anger, usually noisily and harmlessly, thereby relieving one’s tension 1. I haven’t seen my uncle since I was a child, because he isn’t in contact with my parents. He’s the black sheep of the family. 1. Forgive me for yelling at you. I guess I just had to blow off some steam. 2. All the girls in that family except Mary grew up to become respected members of the community. She was the black sheep of the family. 2. When my mother needs to blow off steam, she slams the cupboard doors. Synonyms: blow (one’s) stack; fly off the handle The expression probably originates from the fact that most sheep are white and only the very different ones are black. The expression suggests the noise created when a steam boiler releases excess pressure. BLACK TIE formal dress in which men wear black bow ties and dinner jackets or tuxedos and women wear formal, usually floor-length dresses BLUE sad 1. Rachel seems pretty unhappy these days. I wonder why she’s feeling blue. 1. The dinner was black-tie, so all the men wore black bow ties and dinner jackets. 2. Let’s try to cheer up the children. They’ve been pretty blue since their pet dog died. 2. The film star’s wedding was black-tie. It was a glamorous affair that I’ll never forget. Synonyms: down in the dumps; down in the mouth The expression originates from the black bow tie that is part of men’s formal dress. BLUE-BLOOD a person (or animal) that is an aristocrat or from a noble family BLOW (ONE’S) OWN HORN to boast or brag 1. The young man’s parents did not want him to marry the woman he had chosen because they considered themselves blue-bloods and thought their son was too good for her. 1. Keith lets everyone know that the boss is going to make him the new assistant manager. He likes to blow his own horn. 2. The racehorses raised on my father’s horse farm are blue-bloods—they come from a long line of Kentucky Derby winners. 2. Ruth won’t make many friends if she keeps blowing her own horn about her accomplishments. Dating back to at least the 16th century, this phrase is a reference to the practice of blowing horns to announce the arrival of important officials such as kings. To blow one’s own horn is to boast or claim a position of superiority over others. BLUE LAW a law which regulates personal behavior such as going to certain movies, dancing, or gambling BLOW (ONE’S) STACK to become suddenly very angry 1. In the United States in 1920, a blue law was passed prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages. It was later repealed. 1. When Emily’s father saw the damage she had done to the family car, he blew his stack. 2. Some cities have blue laws that limit or prohibit such activities as dancing and gambling. 2. I hope the boss doesn’t blow his stack when he finds out I didn’t finish this work on time. BLUE RIBBON renowned (sentence 1); first prize (sentence 2) Compare to: raise Cain; fly off the handle; get (one’s) dander up; blow off steam 1. The president assembled a blue ribbon panel of experts to study the problem. BLOW/RUN HOT AND COLD to have mixed or inconsistent feelings about something 2. Sally’s science project won the blue ribbon because it was the best in the contest. The expression originates from the blue ribbon that is often presented to the best entry in a contest. 1. I don’t understand Jack. One day he’s really nice to me, and the next day he couldn’t care less. He blows hot and cold. 2. Pam blows hot and cold about studying nursing. Sometimes she says she would enjoy it and sometimes she says it would be too much work. 8 BLUE-COLLAR WORKER a person who earns a living doing manual labor, or generally uses his or her body rather than his or her mind to earn a living BORN YESTERDAY naive 1. Do you really think you can fool me? I’m not that dumb. I wasn’t born yesterday, you know. 1. Sam works on an assembly line mass-producing clock radios. He’s a blue-collar worker. 2. Philip is going to get hurt if he goes on trusting everyone the way he does. He never suspects that people make friends with him just because he is rich. He acts like he was born yesterday. 2. People who work in factories doing heavy labor are usually blue-collar workers. Compare to: wet behind the ears Antonym: white-collar worker The expression suggests that someone who was born yesterday has not learned to distrust or be suspicious of people and is therefore naive. Wet behind the ears suggests inexperience, while born yesterday suggests that the person is easily fooled. The expression originates from the color of the shirt generally worn by factory workers while on the job. BOILING POINT the point at which one loses one’s temper BOTH FEET ON THE GROUND (to be) realistic and practical 1. You’ve just about pushed me to the boiling point. In a minute I’m going to lose my temper. 1. They’re getting married very suddenly. They say they have both feet on the ground and that they have given it serious thought, but I have my doubts. 2. Don’t push the boss too hard about taking time off work. She hasn’t had much patience this week and it wouldn’t take much to reach her boiling point. 2. You’re leaving school before you graduate? I don’t think you know what you’re doing. Are you sure you have both feet on the ground? Compare to: make (one’s) blood boil The expression suggests heated water whose surface erupts with bubbles when it reaches a particular temperature. Synonym: down-to-earth Antonym: head in the clouds BOMB to fail completely BOTTOM LINE, THE the net result (sentence 1), or the simple and irrefutable truth (sentence 2) 1. The playwright’s new play closed on the first night. It bombed. 2. They thought they had hired an exciting speaker but instead he really bombed. 1. You’ve told me about the down payment, the closing costs, the interest rate, and the price of the house. What’s the bottom line? How much money am I actually going to have to spend on this house? Compare to: lay an egg Whereas bomb is usually applied to creative activities (e.g., a play, a book, a movie, an idea) that fail on a grand scale, lay an egg is usually applied to doing something that is socially embarrassing on a smaller scale. 2. You and I can argue around and around on this issue, but the bottom line is that our children will have to go to college if they want to get well-paid jobs in the future. Synonyms: long and short of it, nitty-gritty BONE OF CONTENTION, A a topic of dispute The expression is often used to describe a monetary figure (sentence 1), but it also describes the basic, (supposedly) undeniable truth of an argument (sentence 2). The expression probably originates from the accounting practice of adding together the profits and subtracting the costs to arrive at a final figure under the bottom line on a spreadsheet or in a ledger or account book. 1. The subject of politics is a bone of contention between Sandra and me—we never seem to agree. 2. John wants to send the children to a private school, and I think it’s unnecessary. It’s a bone of contention between us. Compare to: bone to pick, a BOTTOM OF THE BARREL the least able member of a group; the least desirable items from a collection The expression suggests a bone thrown between two dogs that would naturally fight over it. 1. That’s probably the worst idea I’ve ever heard! You’ve really reached the bottom of the barrel, haven’t you? BONE TO PICK, A a dispute 2. I guess we can ask George to help. But in my opinion, we’re scraping the bottom of the barrel if we have to turn to him. 1. I have a bone to pick with Anne. She told the boss I was looking for a new job and now he’s angry at me. 2. You could tell by the angry look on their faces and the way they walked in looking for Jane that they had a bone to pick with her. Antonym: cream of the crop This idiom is often used with the verbs “to reach” or “to scrape,” as in the examples, and is used to express a negative opinion about a person or thing. Compare to: bone of contention 9 BOTTOMS UP! a call to drink; to empty one’s glass BRING DOWN THE HOUSE to be a great success 1. We had better finish our drinks because the bar is closing. Bottoms up! 1. The comedian at the dinner show is wonderful. He brings down the house every night. 2. Young Timmy did not want to drink his medicine, but bottoms up! his mother insisted as she pressed the glass into his hands. 2. The music critic didn’t like the new symphony being presented at the concert hall. In his newspaper review, he said it would never bring down the house. The expression suggests the idea that the bottom of one’s glass will be up when one drinks. It is informal. The expression is almost exclusively used to describe theatrical or musical performances, but it could also be used for any event that would generate applause. It suggests that when an artistic performance is a great success, the audience applauds so noisily as to make the ceiling and walls of the theater collapse. BOXED IN/BOX (SOMEONE) IN restricted; to restrict someone 1. David feels boxed in because he is stuck in a deadend job and he doesn’t have any options. BRING HOME THE BACON to bring money into the household to support a family 2. Don’t box yourself in by spending all your savings on the most expensive car and not having any money left in case of an emergency. 1. It’s romantic to marry someone you love, but when you set up your household, you’re going to have bills to pay. You should think about marrying someone who will help bring home the bacon. BRAINSTORM to generate many ideas quickly 1. When faced with a complicated problem, it is often useful to brainstorm several possible solutions first before deciding on which strategy you will apply. 2. Leo became ill and couldn’t work anymore, so his wife went back to work. Now she’s the one who brings home the bacon. 2. Before we began writing, our teacher asked us to brainstorm topics for our compositions. BRUSH-OFF, GET/GIVE (SOMEONE) THE to be dismissed casually and almost cruelly Brainstorming is often a formal step in problem solving. The goal is to generate potential solutions without immediately evaluating them. Evaluation is carried out as a subsequent step. The word “brainstorm” is a verb, but its –ing form, brainstorming, is often used as a noun (as in the first sentence in this paragraph). 1. Sue accepted John’s invitation to the dance, but when Wayne asked her to go, she gave John the brush-off and told him she didn’t want to go with him. 2. The boss told me that he was busy right then and that I should come back later. I told him, “Don’t give me the brush-off. I deserve an honest answer from you.” BREADWINNER somebody that provides financially for his or her family The expression suggests the idea of brushing a small piece of lint or dirt from one’s clothing. It is usually used where one person is superior to (or thinks he is superior to) the other. 1. When Harold quit his job and went back to school, he and his wife needed to adjust to having one breadwinner instead of two. BUG to bother, annoy, or irritate mildly 2. When her family needed more money, Tara got a job after school to help out. She became a breadwinner. 1. I told you I would have that report done by the end of the day, so stop bugging me about it. BREAK THE ICE to get things started, particularly by means of a social introduction or conversation 2. The children bugged their mother about going to the movies until she lost her temper. 1. It didn’t take long for the guests at the party to break the ice. By the time dinner was served, almost everyone was chatting with someone they had just met. Compare to: rub (someone) the wrong way; set (one’s) teeth on edge; get (someone’s) dander up; get (someone’s) goat Whereas get someone’s dander up means to irritate in earnest, bug means to annoy harmlessly or perhaps humorously. The expression suggests a bug flying around one’s head. 2. I’m afraid we haven’t met. Let me break the ice by introducing myself. My name is John Taylor. The expression suggests the idea of breaking through an icy surface to clear a path for ships. 10